Communicative Language Teaching

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is an effective method for teaching English language learners.  The goal of CLT is communicative competence, not linguistic or grammatical competence.  Communicative competence is knowing when and how to say what to whom.  The following are characteristics of Communicative Language Teaching:

  1.  Language learning occurs when students communicate in English.  The belief behind CLT is if you want to learn English, then you must practice using English to communicate to others.  Students practice communicating to others in English instead of solely studying the language.  Interacting with others using English is a key characteristic of CLT. Examples of communicative activities are role plays, games, and problem-solving tasks in pairs or small groups.  Working in pairs or small groups maximizes the amount of language practice the students receive.  Students do most of the speaking in this method.

  2.  Students use authentic communication.  Authentic communication means language that is used in real-life situations.  Students are given many opportunities to practice meaningful communication in a variety of real-life scenarios such as role playing ordering food at a restaurant, meeting someone for the first time, asking for directions, or interviewing for a job. Role playing is a common activity in CLT.

  3.  The goal of the student is making themselves understood.  According to CLT, how a student responds to a communication breakdown is beneficial for learning language. In other words, how does the student respond if he/she is not being understood by their peers? Do they repeat what was said?  Do they rephrase what was said? 

4.  Authentic materials are used in lessons allowing students to learn language that is meaningful.  Students communicate with one another using authentic materials.  Examples of authentic materials include newspaper clippings, brochures, menus, or personal photographs.

5.  Errors are perceived as a natural outcome for developing the English language and are part of the learning process. Teachers may not correct student errors, but may note these errors for future instruction or correct the student indirectly. The focus of CLT is communication, so the goal of student interaction is being understood instead of speaking without errors.

  6.  Learners’ fluency skills are evaluated by the teacher along with accuracy skills.  Teachers who use this approach evaluate students by their interactions with others, not by speaking perfectly.  

Spring Activities To Develop Language

Successful second language learning depends on the development of your child’s first language.  The following activities are suggestions for you to do with your child to develop their first language.  Use as much language as possible during each activity.  These activities are based on areas in the United States that experience the four seasons.   

1. Discuss how the weather has changed and how people and animals adapt to the spring weather.  We wear less clothes.  We wear a raincoat and/or rain boots.  We use an umbrella.  Bears wake up from hibernation and search for food.  Migratory birds return to where you live.  Birds make a nest and lay eggs. Some animals shed their fur.  Some animals change color to blend in to their surroundings (camouflage).  

Weather Vocabulary:  rain:  sprinkle, drizzle, pour/downpour, flood  wind:  breeze, blustery, windy  clouds: cloudy, clear, gloomy, foggy  other:  storm, thunder, lightening, rainbow

2. Read books about spring.

3. Look for signs of spring on a nature walk.  Bring a magnifying glass.  Look for grass, butterflies, insects, flowers, leaves, buds, birds, nests, eggs, wildlife (look for animal tracks!), etc..  Use your senses to experience spring!  Reading:  Incorporate reading skills into your walk. What letter and sound does each item begin with? 

4. Plant a plant together.  Explain that the the word “plant” can be used as a noun or a verb (to plant).  Vocabulary words:  seeds, soil, dig, pat, flowerpot, watering can, grow, sprout, blossom, stem, roots, bud, petal, leaf.  Discuss what plants need in order to grow.  

5. Pick a tree.  Draw the changes the tree undergoes in spring.  Write about these changes.      

6. Make a birdhouse.  Observe birds using your birdhouse.    

7. Plant a low-maintenance vegetable in a garden.  Teach your child how to take care of the plant.  What do plants need to grow?    

8. Plant a tree.

9. Play in the rain!  Splash in the puddles!

10. Fly a kite.  Learn about the wind.  What does the wind feel and sound like?

11. Make a spring craft.

Total Physical Response

There are a variety of ways to teach the English language.  One effective method of teaching beginner proficient level English language learners is called Total Physical Response (TPR).    

Giving commands and performing actions is the main technique of TPR.  In this method, the teacher initially teaches three simple commands and models each command along with the students. The students are expected to listen to the teacher and perform the command.  They are not expected to speak.  For example, the teacher states, “Walk.” and demonstrates walking.  The students listen to the teacher and the teacher and students all walk together around the classroom.  

Commands comprise of meaningful words and phrases the student hears in the classroom.  Examples of commands include simple verbs such as walk, read, write, open, close, draw, color, line up, raise your hand, etc. 

After the students have mastered the initial three commands based on the teacher and students modeling the commands together, the teacher then states the same commands, but refrains from physically demonstrating them.  The students follow each command while the teacher either stands or sits.  Once the students have successfully performed each command based on the teacher’s utterances, the teacher then adds three new commands and demonstrates each command with the students.  After the students have learned these commands by performing each command with their teacher, the teacher then states each command without performing it.  The students follow the teacher’s directions.

After the students have learned a list of commands, the teacher makes learning more challenging by expanding the command. Examples of expanding a command are “Walk to the door.”, “Line up at the door.”, “Write your name.”, “Open the book.”, “Close the window.”, etc.  Initially, the teacher performs each command and the students follow each command with their teacher.  When the students have learned the commands, the teacher says each command while refraining from modeling it.  The students follow each direction while the teacher either stands or sits.  

When students feel ready to speak, they can state commands for their teacher and peers to perform.  TPR is an excellent method for teaching students who are experiencing the silent period.  Students’ affective filters remain low because they are not required to speak until they feel comfortable in doing so.

TPR focuses on students’ success.  Before implementing TPR, it is important that students are fluent in the classroom vocabulary that the teacher is adding to each command

The teacher must change the sequence of commands, so students do not memorize the commands based on their sequential order.   

TPR is an effective method for teaching beginner proficient students.  Receptive skills or listening skills are naturally acquired before productive or speaking skills.  TPR works because listening comprehension is the focus.  This method develops ELLs’ basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS) because the teacher uses simple one word commands or simple phrases.  The demonstration of each command ensures students’ understanding of the language being used.  Evaluating students’ understanding is easily done by observing the students’ actions.  

The Silent Period

The silent period refers to a period of time when a beginner English language learner does not produce language (or produces a small amount of language).  This period of time happens at the very beginning of language learning in the pre-production stage of second language acquisition.  It is natural and typical for every student learning English to experience the silent period.  The silent period lasts from a couple of weeks to an entire school year depending on the individual student.  

English language learners experience the silent period for two reasons.  One is because they do not have enough language skills to communicate.  ELLs need time to absorb and digest the language by actively listening for vocabulary words, grammar, and pronunciation.  Two, English language learners may not be confident enough in their English skills to communicate.  They may prefer to gain more knowledge of the language before feeling safe to express themselves.  Some students take risks with the language and feel comfortable making mistakes, so their silent period may be shorter than other students who want to make sure that whatever language they are producing is perfect.  These students do not want to make mistakes when expressing themselves in English, so their silent period is usually longer.

During the silent period, English language learners are actively learning about and adjusting to the culture.  They are observing classroom etiquette, rules, routines and discipline.    

Keeping ELLs’ affective filters low is key during this time.  Students experiencing the silent period need to feel safe, valued and need to feel a sense of belonging.  Providing a safe environment for ELLs is imperative.  This is why beginner ELLs who are experiencing the silent period should not be forced to speak.  Students should only speak when they feel ready to do so.  Forcing output too early will increase stress and anxiety within your students and hinder language acquisition.

There are two important points about the silent period.  One is that although English language learners are silent, they are actively learning the language and culture.  It appears that students are “just sitting and doing nothing” as I’ve been told by some of my former colleagues who were classroom teachers.  As stated above, this could not be further from the truth!  Two is to allow ELLs to produce language when they are ready to do so.  Students should not be forced to speak.  I have observed classroom teachers forcing beginner ELLs to repeat words.  This is unnecessary and counterproductive.  

Strategies to Use During a Student’s Silent Period:

1. Keep ELLs’ affective filters low.

2. Accept nonverbal responses such as nodding, pointing, smiling, or drawing. 

3. Incorporate Total Physical Response. 

4. Assign the student a buddy.

5. Speak slowly and clearly emphasizing key words.

6.   Teach BICS (basic vocabulary words, short and simple sentences). 

7.   Use cooperative learning.

8.   Use body language and gestures to convey meaning.

9.   Use manipulatives, realia, or visuals.

10.  Use iTranslate or a translation app if needed.

11.  Allow the student to rest or sleep.  Being immersed all day in a second language has its benefits, but can be exhausting for students.  Usually, it is not appropriate for students to sleep in your classroom, but in this case, it’s okay! 

Personal Experience:

I had a kindergarten student who experienced the silent period for the entire school year.  One strategy that I used with this student is having our high school Chinese language teacher come to the school to talk him.  I wanted to obtain more information about his thoughts, feelings, struggles, and experience.  While the Chinese teacher was talking with him, he began to cry.  He said that before he entered kindergarten, he had just arrived in the United States from China and had just met his parents for the first time in years.  For most of his life, he lived with his grandparents in China.  When he came to America, he was not only adjusting to the new language, country, and culture, he was meeting his parents for the first time and adjusting to a new family situation.  I had this student for four years and I learned that he did not like change.  All of these factors contributed to his long silent period.  This student became very special to me.

I have also had students with a much shorter silent period.  One student in particular took risks with the English language and didn’t care if she made mistakes.  If she made a mistake or didn’t know how to say something, she would say, “Tell me.”  She meant, “Tell me the correct way to say this.”  She wanted to be corrected or taught directly in order to learn the English language.  

Affective Filter

What makes an effective teacher? One key ingredient of being a successful teacher is creating a low affective filter in your classroom.  What is an "affective filter”?

The Affective Filter Hypothesis is a theory by linguist, Stephen Krashen, suggesting that there is a psychological wall that affects language acquisition.  The psychological wall is referred to as the “affective filter”.  Krashen’s theory proposes that learning a language is affected by a student’s emotions.  For example, when a student’s affective filter is high (or their psychological wall is high), students feel stress, anxiety, and self-conscious.  They may feel unmotivated to learn the language.  According to Krashen’s theory, these negative emotions hinder, or block, language learning.  When a student’s affective filter is low (or their psychological barrier is low), they feel safe, motivated and self-confident, all of which help language acquisition to flourish.  

Why is it important to know about the Affective Filter?

A goal of an English language learner (ELL) teacher, and any teacher, is creating a classroom atmosphere in which their students’ affective filter is low.  Creating a classroom that is warm, welcoming, respectful, caring and supportive where students feel safe and accepted keeps students’ affective filter low and fosters language acquisition.  The lower the affective filter, the more language development, or any learning for that matter, will occur.    

How do I keep my students’ affective filter low in my classroom?

1. Praise your students!  Frequently smile, high five, or compliment your students.  This will provide a comfortable environment where students take risks. Taking risks helps to foster language learning. 

2. Have fun!  Make learning fun and non-threatening by playing learning games, singing songs, dancing, or incorporating hands-on activities such as arts and crafts into your instruction.

3. Be patient.  Allow your students to speak when they feel ready to do so.  Forcing output too early will increase stress and anxiety within your students.

4. Be compassionate.  Understand that learning a new language and culture can be stressful!  Be supportive while your students are adjusting to a new language and culture.

5. Teach what interests your students.  Get to know your students.  What interests them?  Have students suggest what they want to learn and have their interests guide your instruction.  This gives students a sense of control. It also helps students to be an active part of their language learning journey.  

6. Demonstrate an interest in the topics you are teaching.  Showing students that you are genuinely interested and enjoying the content that you are teaching is motivating to students.

7. Embrace errors and avoid correcting students if this will make the student feel embarrassed.  Promote taking risks while learning English. Teach students that errors are acceptable and are a natural part of language learning.  

8. Teach content that will ensure success.  Make sure your instruction is at the correct level of your students, so that they feel motivated and successful.  Provide comprehensible input to ensure that students understand the content you are teaching.  

9. Activate your students’ prior knowledge.  Get to know your students’ backgrounds and use this to guide your instruction, motivate your students, and to make sure your students’ learning is successful.  Include universal topics in your instruction and avoid topics that students are unfamiliar with like American baseball and football or snow if your students come from a tropical climate.

10. Pair or group work.  If your students enjoy working together, then include activities for group or pair work.  This can build rapport among your students fostering a sense of community while helping students feel less isolated.  Students may feel safer speaking among their peers. In addition, working in pairs or groups gives students more opportunities to practice speaking and understanding skills.

11. Value your students’ first language and culture.  Label your classroom in your students’ first language.  Display pictures or hang flags that represent your students’ native country.  Encourage your students to say some words in their first language.  Greet each other in your students’ first language.  Talk about your students’ native country or culture.  Eat a food from your students’ culture.  If your students come from Asia, have them teach you and their peers how to eat with chopsticks or how to draw characters in their language.  Display the characters around your classroom.    

12. Have your students be the teacher.  Students instructing their peers boost their self-confidence and reinforces their own learning.     

13. Encourage participation.  Encourage students to speak, to share their thoughts, and to take risks.  This helps build students’ self-confidence.

14. Get to know your students. Get to know who your students are beyond the classroom and show genuine interest with who they are as people and not just as students.

15. Respect and care about your students.  The way you talk to your students should reflect respect and concern.  Students know if you genuinely care about them, their language learning, and who they are.  

Summer Activities to Develop Child’s Native Language

Successful second language learning depends on the development of your child’s native language. The following activities are suggestions for you to do with your child, or for your child to do on their own, to develop their first language. Use as much language as you can during the activity.  The activities below are based on what you can do in the United States, but you can tweak the activities to your own culture.

The following activities are also focused on building your child's background knowledge or prior knowledge.  It is important for your child to have many, various experiences to increase their background knowledge or prior knowledge.  Background knowledge is essential for reading comprehension.  Children need to have knowledge about the topic in a story or text in order to understand it.  The more a child knows about a topic, the easier it is to read and understand a text as well as remember the information in the text.    

Most importantly, spend time together having fun and making memories!

1. Discuss how the weather changes and how people and animals prepare for summer and survive during the summer.Discuss hot climates like a desert and how people and animals survive in this habitat.

2. Read summer-themed children’s books to your child.

3. If your child is able to read, have your child read books that they are interested in. Visit the public library for free books for your child to read.

4. Go on a nature walk or hike.Bring a magnifying glass. Examine butterflies, insects, berries, flowers, leaves, birds, frogs, parts of a plant or tree.

5. Visit museums, parks, aquariums, farms, zoos, the beach, fairs, water parks, theme parks, farmer’s markets, factory tours or national wildlife refuges.

6. Plant vegetables, flowers, or a tree.Discuss plant as a noun and as a verb (to plant). Vocabulary words: seeds, soil/dirt, dig, pat, watering can/hose, grow, weeds, sprout, blossom, stem, roots, bud, petal, leaf, flowerpot, garden.Discuss what plants need in order to grow.

7. Have your child play a sport or go to a sporting event.

8. Go camping (even if it’s in your backyard) and/or fishing.

9. Go for a bike ride.

10. Go canoeing/kayaking or for a boat ride.

11. Have your children play on the playground.

12. Use sidewalk chalk for your children to practice math facts, spelling sight words, or writing sentences.

13. Stargaze. Talk about constellations, the North Star, the verb twinkle.

14. Watch fireflies glow at night.

15. Go berry picking.

16. Feed the ducks.

17. Eat ice cream, popsicles, snow cones or watermelon.

18. Go on a picnic.

19. Have your children jump rope or play hopscotch.

20. Watch fireworks.

21. Play miniature golf.

22. Set up a lemonade stand.

23. Make a bird feeder.

24. Watch or be a part of a parade.

25. Have your child go to a summer or day camp.

26. Fly a kite.

27. Discuss Independence Day.Does your native country also have Independence Day?

28. Discuss summer weather (rain: sprinkle, drizzle, pour/downpour, flood wind:breeze, blustery, windy, hurricane clouds:cloudy, clear, gloomy, foggy other:storm, drought, thunder, lightening, tornado, rainbow)

29. Go whale watching.

30. Have your child swim at your local pool if you have one.

Winter Activities To Develop Child’s Native Language

Successful second language learning depends on the development of your child’s native language.  The following activities are suggestions for you to do with your child to develop their first language.  Use as much language as you can during each activity.  

The activities below are also focused on building your child's background knowledge or prior knowledge.  It is important for your child to have many, various experiences to increase their background knowledge or prior knowledge.  Background knowledge is essential for reading comprehension.  Children need to have knowledge about the topic in a story or text in order to understand it.  The more a child knows about a topic, the easier it is to read and understand a text as well as remember the information in the text.  

1. Discuss winter weather.  Blizzard, snow storm, ice storm, sleet, slush, ice, wind, freezing rain. 

2. Discuss how people and animals prepare for winter and survive during the winter.  People shovel snow, scrape the ice, snow plows plow the snow.  Animals hibernate, migrate, store food, camouflage.

3. Read winter-themed children’s books.    

4. Make hot cocoa.

5. Bake cookies.

6. Go snow shoeing or a nature walk.  Do you see any icicles?  Search for animal tracks.  Identify trees deciduous, coniferous, evergreen.  Do you smell pine?  Observe different types of birds (not all migrate!).  Collect pine cones and berries.      

7. Build a snowman or snow fort.

8. Go sledding or ice skating.

9. Because there is more darkness at this time of year, it is a great opportunity to observe the night sky.  Discuss and record the phases of the moon.  Do you see any constellations?  Observe or discuss sunrise, sunset, dawn, dusk, twilight.  Some animals are most active at dawn and dusk.  Discuss nocturnal and nocturnal animals.

10. Build and decorate a gingerbread house.

11. Make a craft.  

12. Make a bird feeder.

13. Go on a sleigh ride.  What do you see, hear, or smell?

14. Discuss cold regions of the world (north pole and south pole) and animals who live there.

iTranslate App

iTranslate is an effective language translation app for communicating with ESL students.  You type what you want to say, and the app translates English to the student’s native language.  Students can also speak into the iPad and iTranlsate records what the student says.  The app translates the student’s native language into English.  I found this method to be less effective because iTranslate does not accurately record what the student says, even when the student is speaking slowly and clearly.  Despite this flaw, I still highly recommend iTranslate for ESL and classroom teachers who need to communicate with their English language learners.iTranslate is also helpful for English language learners for learning new vocabulary words and grammar structures.

Reading and Writing Skills for Beginner ELL Students

There is debate whether or not to teach beginner students reading and writing skills before their oral language has developed. I say yes! Go for it! Even though my ESL students did not know any English, I began teaching them letter names, sounds, basic sight words as well as phonological and phonemic awareness skills from the very beginning. Since the ESL teacher’s goal is to catch ESL students up to their peers as quickly and effectively as possible, there is no time to waste! Also, I never encountered any problems with teaching all four skills right from the beginning. In addition, oral and written language often overlap since beginners are reading and writing simple sentences that reflect how we speak. For example, ESL students can learn common sight words from the simple sentences they learn from grammar instruction such as I, am, is, are, come, from, can, like, have, etc. In addition, students read these words in simple texts at their instructional reading level as well as write these words in writing pieces.

Contrastive Analysis

A useful strategy to use when teaching beginner ESL students is contrastive analysis.  Contrastive analysis is where you compare and contrast English and the student’s native language. You analyze vocabulary words (are there cognates or similar sounding vocabulary words), grammar (what is the syntax structure of the student’s native language), pronunciation (what are similar sounds between the two languages), and the reading and writing system (Latin, Arabic, Chinese). By doing a contrastive analysis, you are able to predict easier language skills as well as difficult language skills for the student as they are acquiring English. For example, Spanish speakers use the same writing system as English speakers, so forming letters will not be as challenging like it would be for Chinese speakers. However, Spanish speakers do not have the third person singular (He walks). Therefore, this skill will be more difficult for Spanish speakers to learn. As an ESL teacher, you know ahead of time that your students need more time to practice this skill. Contrastive analysis helps with reading in that you begin with letter names and sounds that are similar between the two languages.  Similar letter names and sounds will be easier to learn than letter names and sounds that differ between the two languages, which you teach last. If you do not know the similarities and differences between English and your student’s first language, listen carefully to the student when they speak their first language. Any sounds that are similar to English will be easier for the student to learn. I have noticed that the “th” sound (soft and hard) is difficult for many English language learners because most languages do not have this sound in their first language. If you have students who do not use the Latin writing system in their first language, then, as an ESL teacher, you can plan extra time for these students to learn how to form Latin based letters during your lessons.

Grammar Translation Method

Grammar Translation Method is a method of teaching language through translation. This method requires learners to translate texts from English (in this case) to the student’s native language. Some of these texts may be literary works. I have seen some teachers use this method to teach English and you may be tempted to use this method with beginners, but Grammar Translation Method is an ineffective method for teaching the English language!  Here are the reasons why:

1. Translating from one language to another does not reflect authentic communication and how we interact with one another. Communication is meaningful, spontaneous, natural, and requires other forms of communication such as speaking and understanding, not just reading and writing.  In order to effectively communicate with English speakers, English language learners need to use all four skills of the English language (understanding, speaking, reading, and writing) in a variety of situations with a variety of people.  This model of teaching is called Communicative Language Teaching.  Grammar Translation Method does not reflect this model.

2. The only type of thinking involved in Grammar Translation Method is translation only.  There are no other ways of thinking while learning English.  Thinking about how to translate from one language to another does not reflect how we think when we are communicating through language. 

3. There is too much emphasis on the student’s native language instead of the focus being on English. If ESL students need to learn English, then students need to use English as much as possible. Some vocabulary words do not translate directly between two languages.

4. Grammar Translation Method is boring and students need to be motivated to learn any language!

Zone of Proximal Development

A hindrance to many English language learners is that classroom teachers teach less challenging material compared to their monolingual peers. Classroom teachers may believe that their ELL students do not have enough language proficiency to grasp the content being taught. Often times though, ELL students do in fact have enough English proficiency to understand the same content as their peers.

In my own experience, I have observed ESL students not being pushed enough with their learning by not only classroom teachers, but by ESL teachers as well. For example, kindergartners will learn their letter names and sounds throughout the entire school year instead of moving on to digraphs and magic/silent “e” words. This occurred even when the students mastered all of their letter names and sounds.

I have been told by ESL teachers that their students were not progressing because they are English language learners! This was not the case! In my opinion, the ESL students in her class were not being pushed enough. In other words, there lacked a zone of proximal development(ZPD) among the students. ZPD is the difference between what a student can achieve independently and what the student can achieve with help. “Proximal” means skills that the learner is “close” to mastering on their own, but cannot master at that point in time. Therefore, the teacher uses scaffolding, which is support that builds on a student’s existing knowledge in order for the student to accomplish the slightly more difficult task being presented. Scaffolding helps the student achieve the skills or tasks that they could not have achieved on their own. Scaffolding only works within a student’s ZPD. This means that the teacher should not stretch the student’s knowledge and abilities too far from what the student currently knows. Scaffolding is effective when the teacher slightly stretches their student’s knowledge and abilities (working within the students’ ZPD) by building on the students’ prior knowledge and by having high expectations of their ELL students. Support is gradually removed as the ESL student is able to complete the task on their own.

As an ELL teacher or classroom teacher who has ELL students, have high expectations for your ESL students! I have often observed that ESL students know much more than they let on! Assess your ELL students, so you are aware of their current knowledge and skills. Share your assessments with the ELL teacher or the classroom teacher. This way, you both know when and how to expand your ELL students’ learning.

Fall Activities To Develop Child’s Native Language

Successful second language learning depends on the development of the child’s native language.The following inexpensive activities are suggestions for parents to do with their child to develop their child’s first language.An effective activity depends on how much language is used during that activity, so you want activities that promote as much language as possible.  Use as much language as they can during each activity.You can also suggest that they incorporate grade level skills during activities.For example, for kindergarten students, parents can practice counting or the beginning sound of a fall item.

1. Visit an apple orchard and go apple picking.

2. Bake a pie or apple crisp.

3. Make caramel apples.

4. Examine the parts of an apple and/or pumpkin.Compare and contrast both.

5. Collect, examine, and compare and contrast leaves.

6. Go on a nature walk and collect fall items.Discuss and compare andcontrast your fall treasures.

7. Visit a pumpkin patch.

8. Carve and decorate pumpkins.

9. Go on a hay ride.

10. Play “I Spy” during a nature walk.

11. Attend a local harvest festival.

12. Read autumn-themed children’s books.

13. Visit a farm.

14. Drink apple cider.

15. Toast pumpkin seeds.

Bilingualism/Multilingualism: Literacy and Bilinguals

If you have a bilingual child, what is the best way to develop their literacy skills in both languages?  There are a variety of  programs for learning to read and write in both languages.

The dual language model is where both languages are used for literacy instruction and development throughout the day. The immersion bilingual education program is where children learn to read in their second language before they learn to read in their native language. Literacy in the native language is added to the child’s education and not replaced.

Another program is the opposite of the previous model.  Children develop their literacy skills in their native language first and then develop literacy skills in their second language. Educators who support this model claim that it is easier to understand texts in a language that you already know and understand. The goal of these models is additive bilingualism where a second language is added to the child’s native language without replacing their native language.

Research has concluded that literacy skills in a student’s first language is a strong predictor of their development of reading skills in their second language. The more literacy skills a student has in their first language, the easier and quicker it will be for that student to acquire literacy skills in English.  If a child understands the concepts of print and uses comprehension strategies (scanning, skimming, visualizing, using background knowledge, making inferences, etc.) in their native language, the child transfers these literacy skills from their first language to their second.  Many educators believe that because of this research, it may be more effective to develop the child’s literacy skills in their native language first and later on, develop the child’s second language literacy skills.  

Reading and writing skills need to be explicitly taught, especially the differences between the two languages. The child’s writing system in their first language and whether or not the child’s first language is a literate language may affect the ease and rate at which English literacy skills are acquired.

An important point to language success is language development. The more a parent develops their child’s native language in all four domains (speaking, understanding, reading, and writing), the more successful the child will be in acquiring a second language.

Bilingualism/Multilingualism: Translanguaging

Bilingual teachers usually use one language during each block of instruction. But, is separating each language the most effective way for teaching both languages? The current bilingual trend is moving away from separating the two languages to using both languages in the same lesson. Using both languages in order to solve a problem or to understand content in the classroom is called translanguaging.

Translanguaging is used to maximize students' learning. The reasoning behind using translanguaging in the classroom is the belief that students naturally use both languages in order to fully understand and learn academic content. The goal of bilingualism and translanguaging is to develop academic learning and skills in both languages.  If translanguaging is occurring in the classroom, then progress and learning need to be achieved in both languages through effective language planning.  Ensuring that students are effectively using both languages during a lesson needs to be managed, so students do not overrely on one language over the other. This may be difficult to regulate since students may naturally prefer using one language over the other.

What is the difference between translanguaging and codeswitching: Translanguaging in the classroom is a much deeper process than codeswitching. Translanguaging is when both languages are used in order to solve an academic problem or to understand academic concepts in a deeper way. The goal of translanguaging is to fully understand and learn academic content by using two languages. Codeswitching or codemixing is when a bilingual person switches between two languages while speaking.  Codeswitching may occur to solve an academic problem or to understand academic content, but there are many other reasons why codeswitching occurs that do not involve academic content. There are a variety of social reasons for codeswitching, whereas the only goal for translanguaing is to obtain a deeper meaning and understanding of academic concepts.

Bilingualism/Multilingualism: The Effectiveness of Bilingual Education

How effective are bilingual education programs? Is there one model that is the most effective? Are there any cons to bilingual education? I will summarize the various studies that have been done on bilingual education and include only the most recent research.

The most current research on bilingual education suggests that bilingual education is superior to English-only models. Research has concluded that two-way dual language programs or the dual language model are the most effective programs for developing both languages.  The two-way dual language program is where both languages are used for instruction and learning throughout the day.  The goal of two-way dual language programs is for students to become equally proficient in both languages, producing balanced bilinguals. Success in two-way dual language programs takes a considerable amount of time. Students who begin a two-way bilingual program at the elementary level do not reach success until after approximately six years of bilingual education. At this point, bilingual students have caught up to their monolingual peers in their language skills. As their education continues, it is believed that bilingual students outperform their monolingual peers.

What about the least effective program? According to research, ESL pull-out programs resulted in the lowest student performance. This is a common program for ESL students in monolingual schools.

A common question that is asked is, "Is the students’ first language hindered while the student learns both languages?" Studies have concluded that bilingual students learn a second language without hindering their first language skills.

The success of any program needs to have certain qualities and characteristics in order to succeed like quality teachers, resources, and support from parents. Success also depends on students’ prior schooling, home life, confidence, self-esteem, and motivation to learn. Because there are numerous factors that influence the success of bilingual education, it is no guarantee of an effective education.

One factor that greatly effects the success of any type of education is the socio-economic status of the school district and community. Many ESL students come from impoverished homes and communities. Schools in impoverished areas may not receive as much funding and as many resources as schools in wealthy districts. Impoverished schools also face other issues as a result of poverty. Although bilingual programs may benefit these students academically, it cannot solve problems of poverty.

In regard to research, it is important to note that studies performed in an urban, middle-class community cannot be generalized to another context such as a low-socioeconomic community in either a rural or urban setting. Research is never perfect and there are many factors that can influence findings. Measuring language competence and academic achievement are challenging and may skew results and conclusions. Test scores also have their limitations.

Is bilingual education effective outside of school? For some students, the second language is rarely used outside of school. Just because students know their second language, does not necessarily mean they use it. Will a bilingual student who is competent in both Spanish and English use academic Spanish in the United States? If not, how will the student’s academic Spanish be maintained? Although research on bilingual education is never perfect, it is still valuable. Examining the conditions that contribute to the success of bilingual eduction and how we obtain these conditions is a key issue.

Bilingualism/Multilingualism: Bilingual Programs

What is the difference between English as a Second Language (ESL) programs and bilingual education? What is the goal of each?

The goal of ESL programs is monolingualism. The aim is to develop ESL students’ English language proficiency. Although the students’ native language may be used in the classroom, the students’ native language is not developed in ESL programs.

Bilingual education is much different than ESL. The aim of bilingual education is to develop the students’ native language as well as theEnglish language. The goals of bilingual education are also biliteracy and biculturalism.  

In ESL classrooms, English is used for instruction and learning, so that students become competent in the English language. In bilingual classrooms, both languages are used for instruction and learning, so that students become equally proficient in both languages, producing balanced bilinguals.

There are a variety of strong forms of bilingual education. One is immersion bilingual education which consists of a bilingual classroom with the initial emphasis on the second language. Students are immersed in the second language and their native language is added in later grades. The two-waydual language programs or dual language programs is where the students’ first and second language are used for instruction and learning throughout the school day from the beginning of their education.

What features do dual language programs share?

1. A language other than English is used for at least half of instruction for up to six years.

2. Only one language is used during one block of instruction.The language is learned mainly though content instruction. For example, science may be taught only in Spanish.

3. Both English and non-English speakers learn in the same classroom.

4. Each language is used for instruction and learning half of the time in order to achieve a language balance.

What are the goals of bilingual education?

1. Proficiency in both languages is achieved in understanding, speaking, reading and writing both languages.

2. Academic achievement in subjects such as math, social studies, and science.

3. Enhance cultural awareness and positive attitudes toward various cultures and people of different cultures.

4. To benefit communities from having bilingual citizens through employment as well as socially and culturally.

Practices in bilingual schools:

1. Both languages are given equal status.

2. School displays, signs, announcements, and activities use both languages in a balanced way.

3. All or most staff members are bilingual.Some teachers may be English speaking only if they co-teach with a bilingual teacher.

4. The length of bilingual programs may vary.The longer the bilingual education program, the more effective in establishing competency in both languages.

Heritage Language Bilingual Education

Heritage language education refers to bilingual programs that develop students’ proficiency in their heritage language. These programs usually do not result in high levels of competency in the heritage language. Heritage programs are effective if students use the heritage language as a means of instruction in order to become a balanced bilingual. An example of heritage language education in the United States is Native American students learning their native language. The goal of heritage language bilingual education is to protect and preserve the language while developing the majority language (English). Dual language bilingual education differs from heritage language education in that the aim of dual language bilingual education is to produce a balance of both languages. The goal of heritage language education is usually to preserve the heritage language and culture.

Day Schools

Day schools are usually private schools or establishments. Some day schools are religious schools where students are provided some instruction in their native or heritage language (Jewish students learning Hebrew or Yiddish). Other day schools provide a class each day for the students to learn their heritage language.

Bilingualism/Multilingualism: ESL Programs

The various English as a Second Language (ESL) programs along with their acronyms can be confusing, even for ESL teachers! The goal of these programs is for ESL students to acquire social and academic English as quickly and as effectively as possible, so they are able to succeed in school and beyond. Here is some clarification with ESL programs in the United States:

Mainstreaming/Submersion: ESL students are placed in a classroom with no English support. The curriculum and instruction are not modified to make the content more comprehensible for ESL students.

Mainstreaming with Pull-Out: ESL students are placed in a mainstream classroom and are pulled out of the classroom for English language instruction and learning that is at the level of the ESL student. The amount of time the ESL student spends with the ESL teacher depends on their proficiency level, state regulations, and, realistically speaking, the schedule of the ESL teacher. The ESL teacher can also “push-in” to the mainstream classroom to provide ESL instruction for their ESL students and/or to provide support during the classroom teacher’s instruction.Co-teaching (complementary teaching) can also occur where both teachers plan and give instruction that is appropriate for all students.

Sheltered English Immersion (SEI):ESL students are placed in a mainstream classroom where the curriculum and content are modified by a trained and licensed teacher in order to make content understandable for ESL students.The Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP) is a model that helps ESL teachers plan and evaluate their sheltered instruction. It is important to note that many teachers believe that SEI is “just good teaching” and modifications are not really needed for ESL students if they have a “good teacher” who implements “good teaching”. Although some modifications are similar, there are differences between being a “good teacher” and effective second language teaching and learning. There is much knowledge and experience that comes with teaching ESL students that a mainstream teacher understandably lacks.

Newcomer Program: Students who recently arrive in the United States may be placed in a newcomer program. Newly arrived ESL students are placed in an ESL sheltered classroom that is welcoming and supportive, so they can adjust to the English language and American culture. When the student has developed enough English, the student transitions to a mainstream classroom and still receives ESL support. This may take one to two years or longer.

Transitional Bilingual Education (TBE): ESL students are first taught in their native language and are allowed to use their native language in the classroom. Students’ native language in the classroom is gradually decreased and is replaced with English. The goal is to increase proficiency in English while decreasing the use of the native language in the classroom. When students are proficient enough in English, they are transitioned to the mainstream classroom.

It is important to mention that none of the above ESL programs are bilingual programs because the aim of these programs is monolingualism.  Just because these programs are used for bilingual students does not mean that they are bilingual education programs.  Even the TBE model is a weak form of bilingual education since the goal is to replace the students’ native language with English.

Bilingualism/Multilingualism: Underachievement for Bilinguals

Have you ever wondered why so many bilinguals are struggling in school despite the positive beliefs about bilingualism?  If research suggests that bilinguals have cognitive advantages over monolinguals and at a certain point, surpass their monolingual peers in the classroom, then why are so many bilinguals underachieving in schools?

It is claimed that the underachievement of bilinguals is due to factors other than knowing two languages. The following factors may contribute to the underachievement of bilinguals in school.Some of theses factors can overlap.

Weak Competency in First Language:

The Developmental Interdependence theory states that the stronger your first language, the easier and faster it will be to acquire a second language. Academic vocabulary and literacy skills will transfer from the first language to the second. Therefore, the stronger the skills in the first language, the stronger the second language will become. As a result, the student will experience more language and academic success in school.  If proficiency is weak in the first language, it will take more time and be more difficult to learn the second language.  If there is a lack of academic vocabulary and reading skills in the student's native language, then it will take more time and be more difficult to learn these skills in the second language.

Culture:

Some parents in the American culture take on an active role in their children’s education. These parents work with their children to prepare them for school and continue to play an active role throughout their child’s education. These students come from families who value education at home and nurture critical thinking skills in their children. Some cultures do not view their role in their child’s education in this way. Parents from some cultures view school, and school alone, as being responsible for their child’s education and it is not the role of the parents to educate their child at home. This is not wrong, but may be a reason as to why some bilinguals lag behind in school.

Some cultures may value rote learning over critical thinking skills, skills that are valued in the American school culture. Some parents of some cultures may jump in and solve a problem that their child is struggling with at home instead of allowing the child to solve the problem on their own. Therefore, bilingual students from these cultures may not have sufficient critical thinking skills because they are not used to thinking and learning in this way.

Higher Standards:

While teaching English as a second language, I noticed that the grade level standards increased throughout the years. The higher standards could be an additional factor for why some ESL students are underachieving in schools. As a bilingual teacher or an ESL teacher, what can you do when school is not valued at home?  One solution is that you can provide lists of vocabulary words that will be taught in the classroom each trimester or quarter. These lists can be translated and parents can pre-teach these words at home if they are able.If parents are able to read English, you can provide lists of sight words as well as books from a lending library that the child can read at home. You can encourage parents to visit their local library.  You can also foster critical thinking skills in your classroom.

Socioeconomic Status:

There is a strong correlation between students’ socioeconomic status and academic achievement.Poverty and lack of resources could contribute to underachievement in school. As an educator, you can provide books from your lending library and/or encourage your students to go to the public library to obtain books to read.

Quality of Education:

Some monolingual schools have bilingual teachers and aides, however, there is no effective model for language instruction and learning. I have taught in a school where ESL classrooms speak mostly the students’ native language or resort to the first language often when teaching. This causes over reliance on the student’s native language and does not increase the students’ English language skills or their confidence in English. I noticed that these students remained in ESL classes year after year and did not exhibit confidence with their English skills. If the child is to receive a bilingual education, the model needs to be effective and benefit the students in both languages.

Interrupted Schooling and Trauma:

Some bilingual students may come from countries of civil unrest or oppression. As a result, the child may experience stress from this experience in addition to the stress of adjusting to a new culture and language.  Also, there may have been periods of time when the child could not attend school.

Learning Disabilities:

Bilingual children can have learning difficulties just like their monolingual peers. It is important to note that bilingual children must receive both special education services and language support.

Final Thoughts:

When thinking about your bilingual students, it is important to accept your students as they are as well as where they are academically. Your role is not just teaching language skills. Your role is also caring about your bilingual students, supporting your students and being there for them, and empowering your bilingual students. From an educational perspective as a whole, how can we make education in America more accessible for all students? What needs to change and how do we change, so that bilingual students are more successful in American schools?

Bilingualism/Multilingualism: Theories

The most relevant theory that ESL teachers need to know is called the Developmental Interdependence theory. This theory suggests that a child’s second language acquisition and competence partly depends on the level of competence the child has in their first language. In other words, the more the child knows in their first language, the easier and quicker it will be for the child to develop their second language. The reason for this is that the ESL student transfers their knowledge from the first to the second language. An example of this is vocabulary knowledge. When learning a second language, the ESL student transfers vocabulary knowledge from their first language to their second. Therefore, the more vocabulary words a student knows in their first language, the easier and faster it will be for the student to acquire proficiency in their second language (and the easier it will be for ESL teachers to teach these students!) When a student’s vocabulary knowledge is weak in their first language, then the student must be explicitly taught the meaning of the vocabulary word and the language for that word.This makes learning a second language more difficult and more time consuming.

The Developmental Interdependence theory stresses language in general for the success of learning a second language. As a parent or an ESL teacher, the emphasis on your child's/student’s native language is key. Therefore, as an ESL teacher, it is important to inform parents to teach their children as much of their first language as possible. This will make their first language strong and will therefore result in a strong second language. If parents are able, giving lists of academic vocabulary words for parents to pre-teach to their children may be helpful.  Encouraging parents to read with their child can also help develop their child's vocabulary.  Stressing the importance of your students’ first language could be a topic to discuss during Open House and parent/teacher conferences. The Developmental Interdependence theory challenges the English only policy that is sometimes supported in monolingual schools where the majority language is English. The Developmental Interdependence theory suggests that English is not the key, but a strong first language is.

Supporting the Developmental Interdependence theory is the current theory about bilingualism and the thought system behind learning languages. This theory is called the Common Underlying Proficiency Model (CUP). The CUP suggests that both languages function within the same system. This model also states that humans are able to store two or more languages and there is no limit for learning another language or multiple languages in the brain. The CUP supports the evidence that bilinguals are able to use both languages with ease and can transfer knowledge from one language to their other language. The CUP also supports the Developmental Interdependence theory in that the student is able to transfer their knowledge from their first language to their second. An example of transferring between languages is codeswitching.

An outdated theory about bilingualism states that there is limited room in the brain for learning two or more languages.This false theory is called the Separate Underlying Proficiency (SUP). This theory states that each language acts separately from one another. For example, for a bilingual child learning English and Spanish, one operating system stores and uses English and the other operating system stores and uses Spanish. Each language area is separate from one another and do not interact or work together.

Bilingual Education:

The Thresholds Theory states that cognitive advantages of bilinguals depend on the level of competence in each language. A child must reach a certain level of proficiency to avoid negative consequences of bilingualism. The child must then reach a second threshold, or level of competence, to experience the positive benefits of bilingualism. It is believed that the Thresholds Theory helps to explain why bilingual children in bilingual immersion classes experience a delay at first when learning their second language. The bilingual students’ proficiency in their second language catches up to the proficiency in their first language.  As a result, the students become balanced bilinguals. Once these students’ second language develops to a certain level of proficiency where students are able to comprehend academic language in the classroom, these students begin to benefit from being bilingual.  Research suggests that balanced bilinguals surpass their monolingual peers.