Bilingualism/Multilingualism: Cognitive Advantages of Bilingualism

Have you ever heard that learning another language is good for your brain? Well, it’s true! Studies have shown that learning another language has positive effects on your brain. It is claimed that cognitive advantages of bilinguals occur when a certain level of proficiency is obtained. Research that has been done on bilinguals has mostly focused on balanced bilinguals or bilinguals whose two languages are well developed. Recent research has shown that balanced bilinguals have cognitive advantages that monolinguals do not have. Studies have concluded that the more a child is proficient in both languages, the greater the probability of cognitive advantages.

Research has shown that bilinguals are more divergent thinkers. Divergent thinkers are more creative, flexible in thinking, and imaginative. They are also more original and elaborate with their thinking. For example, if you asked a bilingual, “How can I use a piece of wood?”,convergent thinkers would give you typical answers that you would expect such as building a house or building a wall. Divergent thinkers may give you answers such as for propping up a wobbly table, blocking a hole, or breaking a window.

Transferring Knowledge and Skills:

Studies have shown that bilinguals have increased metalinguistic awareness than monolinguals. If ESL students, or emergent bilinguals, have reading skills in their first language, then gaining reading skills in their second language will be easier. ESL students already have the knowledge of concepts of print and phonological awareness in their first language (metalinguistic skills), so they can transfer their reading knowledge and skills to reading in their second language. This may be especially true for languages that share the same writing system. The same is true for academic vocabulary. The more developed a child’s vocabulary is in their first language, the easier it will be for this child to transfer their vocabulary knowledge to their second language.  This is called the Developmental Interdependence theory.  The more proficient a child is in their first language, the easier and faster it will be for the child to acquire their second language.

Aging:

Learning another language helps decrease some of the negative cognitive effects of aging. Bilinguals who know and speak two or more languages throughout their lives show a decrease in cognitive decline as they age, especially with memory. Research has shown that signs of dementia or Alzheimer disease are delayed with aging bilinguals compared to monolinguals.

Socioeconomic Factors:

An important question to ask is if all children benefit from bilingualism. Do children from all socioeconomic backgrounds share in the cognitive advantages of being bilingual?Have studies only focused on children from middle or higher socioeconomic status or have children from lower socioeconomic backgrounds been included in research as well? Do balanced bilinguals come from families who encourage creative thinking and nurture metalinguistic skills? Does this factor contribute to the cognitive advantages of bilinguals? What about children who come from families who do not foster creative thinking and metalinguistic skills?

Limitations of Test Findings:

It is important to note that test findings have limitations. For example, how are intelligence and creativity measured? As asked above, which populations of bilinguals were included in bilingual research?

Bilingualism/Multilingualism: Children As Interpreters

In families where parents do not speak, or have limited proficiency in, the majority language, children sometimes become interpreters for their parents. When I was an ESL teacher, some of my high school students acted as interpreters for their parents during job interviews.I also have had students interpret during Open House. There can be advantages and disadvantages for a child acting as an interpreter for their parents.

Advantages:

Confidence. As students act as interpreters, their confidence with the majority language and culture may increase. Children may gain metalinguistic awareness by learning new words and phrases in both languages. They may also earn praise and status within the family as well.

Maturity. In many situations, children are exposed to adult information. They are also acting in a more adult way when speaking to professionals. In addition, acting as an interpreter is a big responsibility. All of these factors may lead to greater maturity.

Closeness.  Family members learn to rely and trust one another, resulting in feelings of family unity and closeness.   

Disadvantages:

Unable to Interpret or Inaccurate Interpretations. Children may not know specialized terms or phrases in the majority language, especially technical terms. As a result, they may be unable to interpret information or interpret information correctly. Also, it may be difficult to translate exactly between the two languages. This may decrease the child’s confidence in the majority language and possibly their native language.

Pressure. Children may feel pressured and overwhelmed by acting as an interpreter, especially if they do not know the words being expressed in the majority language or if the exact translation between the two languages is difficult to achieve. Their parents may be relying on them as interpreters, and children may feel pressure and stress with being able to perform effectively as their interpreter

Inappropriate. Children may be exposed to information that may be inappropriate. Some information could have an emotional impact on the child such as medical or financial problems.

Parents and Native Language as Inferior. Children and professionals may perceive the parents as being in an inferior position because they do not know, or have limited skills, in the majority language. The majority language may be perceived as having a higher status since it is used for professional and important matters. As a result, children may perceive their native language as well as their native language community as being inferior.

Bilingualism/Multilingualism: Codeswitching

Have you ever noticed your ESL students switching between languages while talking to one another? When I lived in Nairobi, Kenya, I often noticed this phenomenon. Codeswitching or codemixing is when a bilingual person switches between two languages while speaking. You may be wondering why bilinguals do this. Are they being lazy? Not at all! There are numerous reasons why codeswitching occurs.

1. Codeswitching is easier. Some words may be easier to say in one language than the other.  Speakers may substitute words that have less syllables or that are easier or quicker to say. If the speaker does not know the word(s) in one language, the speaker may substitute the word(s) in the other language. For example, technical or academic words may only be known in one of the two languages.

2. Accurately expressing oneself.  Some words may not exist in a language, so the speaker needs to switch to the other language.  Also, a bilingual speaker may be able to more accurately express oneself by using a certain word in one of the two languages.  

3. Problem solving. Codeswitching may occur to help solve a problem. If the bilingual’s academic language is English, the bilingual may switch to English in order to solve an academic problem.

4. Understanding. This usually occurs in the classroom where a teacher may explain a concept in one language and then switch to the other language to reexplain the concept to ensure understanding.

5. Communicate closeness or identity.  Bilinguals may switch from the majority language to the minority language to express closeness and to identify with the minority language community. A bilingual may also use codeswitching to be accepted within a group. On the other hand, if a bilingual wishes to keep distance with another person or keep a professional relationship, they may only speak a specific language with this person.

6. Reported Speech. A bilingual may use codeswitching while describing conversations they previously had or heard. For example, for the sake of accuracy, the bilingual may switch to English in order to tell the other person what a person said in English word-for-word.

7. Exclusion. Codeswitching is sometimes used to exclude others from a conversation. Bilinguals may switch to their minority language in order to talk about a private matter.

8. Topic being discussed. Certain topics are discussed using a specific language. For example, sports may be discussed in the minority language while current events or business matters may be discussed in the majority language.   

9. Emphasis.  Codeswitching may occur when the speaker wants to emphasize a point.

Bilingualism/Multilingualism: After Childhood

Is it easier to learn a second language when you are a child or when you are an adult?

The critical language hypothesis claims that acquiring a second (or multiple) language(s) in a rich language environment is easier for children due to biological cognitive advantages. This hypothesis states that it is ideal to learn a second or third language as a child, and after puberty learning another language is more difficult.

The age when learning a second language becomes more difficult is up for debate. Some claim that learning a second language is more difficult after the age of eight, and others believe that learning a second language is more difficult as one enters adolescence.

Critics claim that the critical language hypothesis is too simple and general, and that there are many factors such as motivation and intelligence that affect second language acquisition.

Critics stress that successful language learning has more to do with the advantages of the individual learning the second language. One advantage may be opportunities for learning the second language. For example, school aged children learn the second language in school, whereas adults may only learn the language once a week for a few hours in a formal language class.

Another advantage is life responsibilities. Adults have responsibilities such as work and taking care of their family which may take away from learning the second language, whereas children do not have these responsibilities. When children learn a second language in a rich language environment (school) when they are young, they are able to maintain and become more proficient in their second language throughout the grade levels.

When I was an ESL teacher, most of the time, the younger the students began learning English, the easier it was for these students to learn English.  Teaching young students was easier for me since I did not have to catch the student up to grade level skills as much as I did with students who entered school in the older grades. Also, kindergarten skills in the classroom corresponded to learning beginner English, so the student received extra practice and reinforcement with, for example, learning letter names and sounds.

When referring to children in this post, I am referring to children in early childhood and school aged children who learn the second language in school. It would be different if a young child attended formal language classes along with teenagers or adults. In this case, the teenagers and adults would most likely have the advantage of learning a second language due to metalinguistic and higher level thinking skills.

Acquiring An Accent:

It is widely believed that children who begin learning another language after puberty will acquire an accent, whereas children who acquire a second language before puberty will not speak with an accent. The reason for this is that children are able to physically pronounce sounds from a language (phonology) easier than adolescents because their mouths are more flexible and malleable. After puberty, our mouths become less flexible and more fixed, and it is, therefore, more difficult to produce the sounds of the second language. From my experience, I did find that young children did not acquire an accent, whereas older children did. Personally, I have observed some students, and this is very rare, who retained an accent despite their age.I believe that these students retained an accent in order to affiliate to their native language community. In this case, I respected this decision and never forced a student to speak like a native English speaker without a foreign-sounding accent.

Bilingualism/Multilingualism: Early Childhood

Most of the world is bilingual.How does this happen? How do children become bilingual?What are the most effective ways for children to learn a second or third language? Does learning a second language benefit or hinder a child’s language abilities?

As ESL/ELL teachers, it is important to know about bilingualism because most to all of your students are bilingual.  At parent/teacher conferences, you may need to address parents' concerns about their child learning two languages, and what type of method is the most effective for their child for acquiring two languages.

Some children learn two languages from infancy. This kind of bilingualism is called simultaneous bilingualism. Simultaneous bilingualism refers to a child from birth who learns both languages at the same time.

Other children learn one language at birth, and then the other language later on. This is called sequential bilingualism. Parents may wonder if learning two languages is confusing or overwhelming for their child. They may also question whether or not learning two languages hinders their child’s language skills. Children are like sponges and soak much information from their surroundings. This is a crucial time for language development and therefore, it is very important to foster their learning at this age. 

The process of a child acquiring two languages is not destructive to the child’s language abilities or progress. Learning two or more languages is actually a natural process because as humans, our brains are programmed to be able to learn, store, and discriminate between languages from infancy.

Factors that Ensure Successful Bilingualism:

Children need to be able to differentiate between the two languages.  Studies have shown that children as young as infants show discrimination between the two languages very early on.  This may be due to research that has shown that infants begin to hear language sounds while in the womb.  By the age of two, bilingual children know which language to speak to which person and in what situation.

Children need to effectively store the two languages. As stated above, this is a natural process because we are biologically programmed to store language(s). T

Types of Early Childhood Bilingualism: 

One Parent - One Language The one parent- one language method is when one parent speaks one language to the child, and the other parent speaks the other language to the child.For example, the father speaks Farsi to the child, and the mother speaks English to the child. This is considered a successful method for a child to acquire two languages. One would assume that the child would become equally proficient in each language (balanced bilingualism), but this is very rare. Proficiency in a language depends on many factors. One factor is which parent the child interacts with the most. For example, the child may talk to the mother more because she remains in the home to raise the child versus the father who is absent due to working outside of the home. As a result, the child may become more proficient in the mother’s language than the father’s language. Another factor is the community language.Despite the mother speaking one language to the child, the community may speak the other language.For example, a mother using English with her child while the community speaks French. Languages used by siblings or others in the the home, print, television, and the internet are other factors that may influence the proficiency of each language.  

Language Used at Home is Different from Community Language One circumstance in which a bilingual child acquires two languages is when the language used at home is different from the community language. The parents use one language at home with the child, and the child acquires the other language outside of the home. This method is regarded as a successful method for acquiring languages. For example, both parents speak Spanish to the child, and the child learns English at school and in the community. Multilingualism could occur here where the child learns one language from the father, another language from the mother, and a third language at school and in the community. An example of this is the father speaking Spanish to the child, the mother speaks German to the child, and the community language is English. Maintaining all three languages over time may be difficult.  

Languages that are Mixed This method refers to both parents speaking both languages to the child.   

Second Language is Introduced to the Child Later in Life In this case, the parents may introduce the second language to the child later on in the child’s life. For example, parents may speak Dutch to the child until the child is three or four, and then add English. The purpose of this is to create a strong first language foundation in the child before the dominant language in the community becomes more prevalent.  

Language Shift A language shift may occur because of changes in a bilingual child’s life. The child will most likely be more proficient in one language than the other. However, the child can become more competent in the less proficient language if, for example, the child moves to an area where the language community uses the child’s weaker language.

Bilingualism/Multilingualism

When you hear the word, “bilingual”, what is the definition that comes to mind? What does it mean to be bilingual? How do you identify a person who is bilingual? Is a bilingual person equally competent in both languages or more competent in one language than the other? To whom and in what situations do bilinguals use one language and to whom and in what situations do bilinguals use the other?

Defining what exactly bilingualism is can get quite complicated. My blog posts are written for ESL teachers or staff members in an educational setting who have ESL students, so the information in this post will be based on this audience.

Ability vs. Use One way that helps define bilinguals is their ability in each language. Some bilinguals are able to understand and speak in both languages. Others are able to understand, speak, read, and write in one language and speak and understand in their other language. Language dominance, the language the person is more proficient in or uses more, may vary with each bilingual. Bilinguals may use each language in different situations or settings. For example, some may use one language in school with their teachers and peers and another at home with their family members.

Monolingual Schools For many monolingual schools in the US, a common occurrence and perception of ESL students is that they are socially fluent in both languages and academically fluent in the majority language (English). It is important to determine the language goals and purposes of your ESL students. If you are in a monolingual school where most students speak English, then the language goals of your ESL students would most likely be that they learn English with native-like proficiency. Some may question why you do not develop your students’ first language. First, a bilingual who is equally and highly competent in both languages in all four domains (reading, writing, understanding, and speaking) is very rare (balanced bilingualism). Second, many monolingual schools do not have the resources or time to fully develop both languages. Third, many ESL teachers simply do not know multiple languages socially and academically to develop the student’s first language.

How much of the first language should be used in the classroom for ESL students to be successful in and out of school? If you know the student’s first language, how will you use it effectively? Again, knowing your ESL students’ goals and purposes for each language is key. I have been in an educational setting where mostly the first language is used for teaching concepts and completing work in the majority language (English). I observed that these students developed English more slowly and were not confident in using English since they were reliant on their first language. These students remained in their ESL classrooms year after year.In this case, how do your ESL students become less reliant on their first language while developing the majority language?

The students in the ESL classroom are called circumstantial bilinguals. Circumstantial bilinguals learn the majority language that is used in their surroundings in order to function and live in their surroundings. The majority language is the language used for business/employment, education, political, and social purposes. If this is the case, we, as ESL teachers, need to ensure that our students are successful in the community that they must live and function in.How will your language goals and objectives reflect your students’ surroundings and needs? What about large cities where there are multiplelanguages and cultures?

One of the most crucial points when talking about ESL students and bilingualism in monolingual schools is for ESL teachers and staff members to value and accept both of the student’s languages. English is not a substitute for the student’s first language, but an additional language. ESL students are not a problem in schools. The ESL student’s first language is also not a problem. ESL students do not “limit” a school’s performance. This is especially true with standardized tests. ESL students may be perceived as inferior and less competent if they do not score as well as their monolingual peers on standardized tests that are written in the majority language.

Holistic View The holistic view of bilingualism perceives both languages as interconnected.  The holistic view believes that both languages are interrelated instead of the two languages functioning separately.  The theory that supports this view is called theCommon Underlying Proficiency Model.  

The Common Underlying Proficiency Model suggests that bilingual students are able to transfer their knowledge from one language to their other language.  Codeswitchingis an example of switching between languages with ease.  Cognates are another example where the same words in the first language exist in the second language. Making connections between the students’ two languages can help students develop their second language while raising awareness of their first language. The holistic view also believes that knowing and understanding one language helps the student know and understand their second language.  The theory that supports this view is called the Developmental Interdependence theory.  If you teach in a bilingual school, do you agree with these beliefs?What are the language goals and purposes of your students? How does your teaching reflect these goals and purposes?

When to Correct Beginner ESL Students

When you have a beginner ESL student, your first priority is to make that student feel as accepted and secure as possible. This helps students adjust to the new language and culture.  In regard to language learning, ensuring that your beginner students feel emotionally safe and comfortable helps students to take risks by using and practicing their English skills. Taking risks with the English language greatly increases students’ language acquisition.  Correcting a beginner ESL student may make a student feel uncomfortable with practicing their English language skills and may inhibit their learning.  So, when do you correct a a beginner ESL student?

There are four factors when correcting beginner ESL students:

If students make an error when you have already taught the language skill.  For example, if you have already taught subject/verb agreement and the student says, “I happy.”  You need to correct the student by requiring the student to say, “I am happy.”  Do not correct students if the error is above their language level and you have not yet taught the language skill.

If the error is embarrassing for the student or inappropriate.  If the student is mispronouncing a word so that it sounds funny or inappropriate, then you need to correct the student.  I had a student pronouncing “witch”, but it sounded like an inappropriate word in English.  In this case, the student was corrected by pronouncing the word correctly.

You can correct a student if the student does not mind being corrected or wants to be corrected.  This is usually rare, but I have had one student who wanted to constantly be corrected from the beginning.  If this is the case, by all means, correct the student when they want to be corrected.

If what the student is saying causes confusion and communication breaks down.  Most of the time I could figure out what the student was trying to say despite language errors.  If I did not understand what the student was communicating despite asking them to repeat what they were saying, then I corrected the student usually by modeling the correct language.  If the language they were using was above their language level and I had not taught these language skills, then I would correct the student by modeling the correct language.

Correcting students is a necessary, but delicate balance.  Your goal is for the student to practice and play with the language without feeling embarrassed or hindered in any way, so you do not want to overcorrect the student unless they want to be. However, you also do not want students’ errors to fossilize and become ingrained either.  Your goal as an ESL teacher is for your students to use English like native speakers.

The above factors can serve as a guide as to when to correct your beginner ESL students.  Remember to be compassionate toward your students, especially beginner students who are most likely feeling vulnerable.  Imagine how you would feel if you were in their place.  This perspective may help guide you to not only when to correct your students, but how you correct them as well.  When correcting a student, be encouraging and positive and praise students after they produce the correct language.  You are not only teaching your students the English language, but you are a symbol of support and empowerment for your students as well.

Native Language in the Classroom

Have you ever wondered how much of your ESL student’s native language should be used in your classroom, especially if your student is a beginner and has limited skills?In this case, I am referring to a monolingualclassroom.The answer to how much of an ESL student’s native language should be used in the classroom varies from person to person and has been a controversial subject.In monolingual settings where the majority language is English, the language goal of ESL students is to acquire English as quickly and as effectively as possible, so these students succeed in and outside of school.

As an ELL teacher, I would suggest to classroom teachers that their beginner students complete writing pieces in their native language if they did not have enough English skills to complete the assignment in English.  By doing this, you are valuing the student’s native language and the ESL student feels capable and has a better sense of belonging.  I would allow students or teacher aids who speak the same language as the beginner ESL student to help the student by translating directions and summarizing classroom material if the student who is translating wants to do so.  Many students feel embarrassed, uncomfortable, and do not want to stick out among their peers by speaking their first language in the classroom. In addition, translating content can be a lot of responsibility for the student who is responsible for translating.  This is something to consider before asking students to translate for you.  Although you want to continue to value the student’s native language, you need to decrease the number of times the native language is used in the classroom.  This is not intended to devalue the student and their first language, but to ensure that the student learns English and becomes confident with using English, so that they become successful in and out of the classroom. Decreasing the use of the native language decreases the dependency that the student has with their native language and on others who will translate for them.  The only time that I would suggest translation is for tier three words that are confusing for the student.  Tier three words are low frequency words that are subject-specific such as mitosis, hyperbole, amino acid, etc..  It is faster and easier to simply translate the word for the student, so the student understands the word quickly and easily.  The student should be speaking their first language at home except when getting help with homework if this is possible.  

Strategies for Beginner English Language Learners in the Classroom

The following strategies are for classroom teachers, teacher aids in the regular classroom, and ESL teachers.

Classroom

ESL students should sit in front of the classroom, so he/she can easily see and hear you.

Provide a buddy for the student.

Bring in the student’s parent(s) to talk about their language and culture.

Provide manipulatives and hands-on activities.

Provide demonstrations.

Have a peer teach the student basic vocabulary words after they finish their work or when they have time.

Have the ESL student read to a peer if they feel comfortable in doing so or have a peer read to the student when they have time.

Establishing a Sense of Belonging

Label your classroom in the student’s native language and English.

Display pictures of the student’s native country.

Display a flag (real, student made, or picture) of the student’s native country.

Read literature about the student’s native country.

Celebrate holidays from the student’s native country.

Have peers greet each other in the student’s native language.

Have peers use simple words or phrases from the student’s native language throughout the day/week (Thank you. You’re welcome. Please.)

Have the student share an object from their native country.

Have peers share an object from their native country or from their heritage if applicable.

Provide group work. Focus on what the student can do during group work. The student can be the time keeper, can draw or color for the group, or can label words for the group.

Speaking and Understanding

Use gestures, facial expressions, pictures and/or objects while speaking to your student. For example, while asking, “Do you like to draw?”, pantomime drawing in the air.If you state, “You need a pencil”, show the student a pencil.

Emphasize key words in a question or statement. “You need a pencil.”

Rephrase what you are saying. When giving directions and you say, “Only do the even numbers.”, you can rephrase this direction by saying, “Only do numbers 2, 4, 6, 8, …”and write these numbers on the board.

Paraphrase your question or statement into simpler words while emphasizing key words.

Repeat questions or statements at a slower pace as many times as necessary emphasizing key words.

Give the student a lot of wait time to answer a question. The ESL student needs a lot of time to process what you are saying. The student may be translating English to their native language and then their native language to English if they are required to respond. This takes a lot of time! Give the student at least 30 seconds of wait time.

Speak slowly and clearly to the student. If you speak slower than you usually speak, you are probably speaking too quickly. You do not need to speak louder! Use simple English such as short and simple sentences.

Sentences should be short and should include basic grammar and basic vocabulary words. Avoid using abstract language such as phrasal verbs or idioms.

Simplify directions using simple words, short sentences, pictures or objects, and few steps. Write the directions on the board and use pictures or objects where applicable.

Avoid using pronouns like he, she, we, they or it.

Reading

Begin with similar sounding consonant names in the student’s first language and with the most common letters.

Begin with similar sounding consonant sounds in the student’s first language and with the most common sounds.

Begin reading basic, repetitive texts.

Texts should be at the student’s instructional reading level. Texts should contain graphic elements such as pictures, glossary, captions, etc. and should be about universal subjects (food, animals, people), so the content is easier to understand.

Vocabulary words should be taught/reviewed before reading.

Background knowledge should be provided if there are differences between the American culture and the student’s native culture in the text. Perform a picture walk before reading a text discussing vocabulary words, sight words, and/or pictures.

Writing

Give the student an alphabet chart to refer to.

Provide a written model for the student.

Provide sentence starters for student if applicable.

Provide child friendly/student dictionary whether it is a word dictionary, picture dictionary, or both.

Modify the student’s spelling words by giving spelling words at his/her level or by giving the student less vocabulary words by picking the most important/easiest.

Give opportunities for the student to write about what interests them. Often ESL students will write about their country and/or culture.

Use sentence strips to help students with grammar. Laminate them so you can reuse them. Cut sentence strips into pieces and write each word on a piece of sentence strip. The student can unscramble simple sentences.

Modifying Student Work/Quizzes/Tests:

Give simple directions.

Do the first question together.

Focus on key concepts/vocabulary words.

Give the student less work/questions.

Give the student extra time.

Use multiple choice, true/false, matching, labeling activities, or a word bank.

Use graphic organizers.

Allow the student to use a bilingual dictionary.

Grading:

Grade the student on content, not their English.

Give the student “NA” (Not Applicable at this Time) if you are unable to assess the skill. In the comments section, say something like, “Some skills were unable to be assessed at this time due to (child’s name) language skills." Focus on what the student can do. In your comments section, mention the positive characteristics and behavior of the student such as motivation, intelligence, being a hard worker, being attentive, etc.

Remember To:

Respect the child’sSilent Period. Do not force ESL students to speak or to repeat what you say.

Encourage the ESL student by smiling and praising the student whether it is after they speak or when looking at their work.

Provide a safe environment.

Focus on the student’s meaning, not their grammar. Do not make the student correct their English unless they feel comfortable to do so and do not overtly correct the student unless they feel comfortable with you doing so.If the student makes a mistake, model the correct language.

Incorporating All Four Language Skills

Effective English language teaching involves incorporating all four language skills (reading, writing, listening, understanding) into a lesson. Including culture is important as well. For example, when I would teach food, I would teach the student food vocabulary words as well as the phrase “I like” for learning grammar. We would discuss food that the student likes. This includes foods from their native culture and how they eat food (hands, chopsticks, on the floor) to tie in the student’s culture. We would then read texts about food that are at the student’s instructional level (practicing decoding, sight word recognition, and comprehension skills). We would then write about the foods that the student likes applying the grammar structure “I like”. The student sometimes put a pattern breaker at the end of their book stating what the student does not like, adding interest to their book while learning about pattern breakers. 

Curriculum for Beginner ELL Students

What do you do when you have an ESL student who knows no English? Where do you start? When teaching an ESL student who does not know any English, your goal is to teach the student Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) or social language.

BICS consists of tier one vocabulary words. Tier one vocabulary words are basic words we use in social settings every day. One of the goals of teaching English to beginners is for these students to understand language in school, so that they understand what is happening in school. Because of this, the first set of vocabulary words to teach beginner ESL students is school supplies (pencil, book, paper) and classroom furniture (table, chair, door). You begin with the most common vocabulary words and gradually add more words over time.

The ESL student also needs to use these vocabulary words in an authentic way using simple sentences. When teaching the ESL students, your goal is to teach authentic language, or language that actually occurs in real life. When teaching school supplies, an authentic situation would be a teacher asking a student if he/she has a pencil. Therefore, you pair school supplies with the grammar structure, “I have”. I would ask the student, “Do you have a pencil?” and the student responds, “Yes, I have a pencil”. You then practice this question and answer drill substituting “pencil” with other vocabulary words pertaining to school supplies that the student already knows or is currently learning.

Next, I teach body parts for safety reasons. If the student gets hurt at school, I need this student to be able to express where he/she is hurt. The grammar structure I pair body parts with is, “My ______ hurts”.

Other vocabulary words I teach are: food, family, feelings, verbs, adjectives/opposites, clothing, animals, and places in the community. I also teach prepositions of place to beginners.

The following chart consists of the vocabulary words I would teach to beginners along with the authentic grammar structures.  These vocabulary words and grammar structures are in sequential order.

Classroom Furniture and School Supplies                            I have…

Body Parts                                  My __________ hurts.

Feelings                                       I am…

Verbs                                           I can…

Food                                           I like…

Adjectives                                   I am…, I have…She/He is…She/He has…

Family                                         This is…She/He is….She/He has

Clothing                                      I have…

Animals                                      A (animal) is (adjective). A giraffe is tall.

Community Places                   Combine learned vocabulary words and grammar structures

Teaching the English language is a systematic and purposeful process. When you teach English, you build and expand on what the student already knows. For example, when you teach family, the student already knows body parts and adjectives. The student can use this knowledge to describe their family members.

I also would teach beginner ESL students frozen language at the same time that I teach vocabulary words. These phrases include information about the student. The phrases I teach are “My name is __________”, “I am __________ years old”, “I come from __________”. Two other important phrases are, “Can I go to the bathroom?” and “Can I get a drink?” At this point the student is memorizing each phrase. When teaching frozen phrases, I first used sentence strips. I cut each word from the sentence strip and the students first practiced reading the sentences or phrases with the words in order. Later on, I would scramble the words for each phrase, and the student would have to put the words in the correct order and then read the sentence. When the student has learned the phrases that pertain to information about the student, I then would have the student write these phrases in an “About Me” writing piece.  

The Benefits of Bilingualism

If I had to choose the number one misconception among my colleagues in regard to ESL students, it would be that ESL students must speak English at home in order to increase their language skills.  Speaking English at home will not increase ESL students’ language skills and in fact, it may be a determent to their language learning!

English as a second language is an additional language, not a substitution.  English should not replace the student’s first language, but should be an additional language that the student knows and uses. 

The following reasons explain the benefits of knowing and using two or more languages as well as reasons why a bilingual child cannot be expected to speak only English at home:

1. If the child’s first language is replaced by English, the child not only loses their native language, but their culture and identity as well. Language is a powerful part of who you are. It is not just words and grammar, but a way of thinking, being, and behaving. Language also contributes to how one understands, views, describes, and values the world around them. The English language is an asset to the child and can create many opportunities for him/her.  Most children who are bilingual are also bicultural. He/she is able to learn two cultures, broadening their perspective about the world around them. Being bilingual and bicultural can open up economic and employment opportunities for bilingual children.

2. Another benefit for being bilingual is that traveling is easier and cheaper if you know the language of the country you are visiting.

3. Being bilingual can also create social opportunities and connections.  Practically speaking, the child may be unable to speak English at home because their family either does not know English or speaks English incorrectly.  If the family knows English, but their English has errors, then the child learns English that is incorrect.  As an ESL teacher, it is much more problematic and difficult to correct the child’s language errors than if the child does not speak any English at all.  This is due to the child's errors being fossilized, or becoming a habit.  These language errors cannot be easily corrected and can be one of the biggest frustrations for English language teachers. Teaching beginners who know no English is easier because you begin with a blank slate and you fill this blank slate with correct English.

4. If the child's native language is replaced by English, then most likely this child will be unable to communicatewith some to most of their family members.  The child’s relatives such as grandparents or extended family members may have remained in their native country or do not know English even if they are residing in an English speaking country.  How will the child be able to communicate with their extended family if they lose their native language? It is a huge disservice to sever this important connection between the child and family member, especially for cultures where family is valued.

5. Theoretically speaking, you need both languages to learn English. The theory that supports this view is called the Developmental Interdependencetheory.  This theory suggests that the more proficient the child is in their first language, the easier and faster the child will acquire English, their second language. The child transfers their knowledge from their first language to their second language.  He/she learns language only and not the concept(s) because the child already understands the concepts in their first language.  Therefore, the student’s first language needs to remain strong while the weaker of the two languages, their second language, is being learned. It is believed that the student’s second language will gradually become stronger and will eventually catch up to the their first language (or come close), so that the student is equally proficient in both languages (balanced bilingual).

6. Students are receiving English language immersion for at least six hours per day in school. This is A LOT of English language instruction!  The student should not be expected to speak English only at home because it is perceived that they are not receiving enough English language instruction in school.

7. No one can force parents to speak English only at home even if the parents are fluent. It is ultimately their choice whether or not their child speaks English in the home. Parents may find value and usefulness in maintaining their native language. 

8. For those of you living in a country where English is the majority language, remember that half to two-thirds of the people in the world are bilingual.  It is often considered the norm to know and use two languages.

9. Numerous studies have found that bilinguals have cognitive advantages that monolinguals do not have.  An interesting observation I have made in the United States is that many students are required to learn a foreign language in middle or high school because it is believed that knowing another language is beneficial.It does not make sense to replace an ESL student’s first language with English in the elementary grades and then later tell these students that knowing two languages will benefit them in the future.

ESL or Special Education: Challenges Regarding Meetings

I have had ESL students who I felt had learning disabilities. I would express my concerns with the classroom teacher and strategies that could help these students in both classrooms. The next step would be to meet with the school’s intervention team if these strategies were unsuccessful and the student continued showing much difficulty with their learning. I expected to be invited to these meetings, but many times I was not. Or, I would be told that the final, and most important meeting, where staff members present their data and results to each other and to the student’s parents to determine whether the student needs special education had already occurred…without me. My ESL students who had already been identified as special education students would have annual special education meetings…sometimes without me. I have had to remind teachers, special education teachers, and the principal that I need to attend and be a part of these meetings.

Another challenge I sometimes had during these meetings (if I was invited) was not being listened to or valued. Despite presenting my concerns and the results of assessments, I would feel that my presentation was not given merit. My findings and opinions would not be mentioned later in the meeting or considered when determining whether or not this student had a learning disability. At times (and maybe more times than I would like to admit), I did not feel listened to or valued. Despite having a Master’s Degree in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages and a Bachelor’s of Science Degree in Special Education as well as being an experienced teacher who cared about my students and who gave quality instruction (I thought!), I sometimes felt that I had no voice.

Similar to the above challenge, I sometimes felt that the information that I presented at meetings was perceived as inaccurate and invalid by some of my colleagues. For example, during a meeting, the guidance counselor of our school claimed that it takes English language learners at least two years to learn their letter names and sounds. Despite disagreeing with him and stating that it typically does not take English language learners two years to learn their letter names and sounds, some of my colleagues would disagree with me stating that it takes a long time for ELL students to acquire the English language. It is true that it may take a long period of time for some ESL students to develop their English language skills, at this rate, ELL students would graduate high school with an elementary level education! This is one of many examples of feeling as if I did not know what I was talking about at special education meetings.

I realize that this post may come across as being negative. I have had meetings that were very positive and productive. After these meetings, I felt excited and thought, “This is why I teach!” This post is about getting real and being honest. It is about being understanding and supportive of ESL teachers who are having, or have had, challenging experiences during meetings and the affects that they have on you. If you have had similar experiences to the ones I have described, you are not alone. If you, at times, do not feel valued as an ESL teacher, you are not alone. If you, at times, feel as if your colleagues perceive you as incompetent and not knowing what you are talking about, you are not alone. If sometimes you feel like an outsider as an ESL teacher in your school district, you are not alone. There is at least one other person out there who has had similar experiences and feelings. And that is me. It can feel very frustrating to experience challenges during meetings and to not feel valued or part of your school district. Remind yourself that you DO know what you are talking about and that you ARE a competent ESL teacher. Remind yourself that you ARE valuable and you are an ASSET to your school district. In addition to these reminders, the best thing that you can do is to care about your students, give quality instruction, and to play your role as a caring, competent, valuable ESL teacher as best as you can.

ESL or Special Education: Overview and Action Plan

Here is an action plan to help you with the process of identifying whether or not your ESL student has a learning disability.

Overview

1. Refer to BICS and CALP as well as the stages of language acquisition.  Is the student making progress?

2.  Are the student’s receptive skills developing before their productive skills?

3. Does the student have a documented disability?

4. Are there factors that could be impeding the child’s ability to learn English?

Action Plan

1.  Discuss concerns with classroom teacher and consult with your ESL colleagues.

2.  Implement strategies in both classrooms that could help the student’s learning.  Document these strategies and their success.

3. If the student continues to struggle, meet with your school’s intervention team.  Present your concerns and data to the team.  Express your observations and show the team a portfolio type assessment which consists of multiple assessments and different types of assessments (reading level, writing samples, vocabulary, and grammar checklists).

4. If the team suggests to test the student, test the student in their native language or the student's stronger language.  If testing the student in their native language is not possible, test the student in English making sure the directions of the assessments are clear and the assessments reflect learning in the classroom.  Tests should be valid, clear, and free of cultural bias.  Assessing the student's knowledge and skills is the goal, so you want to prevent any language barriers that may hinder this assessment.  Make sure you receive permission from parents before testing!

5. Ask the parents about the student’s native language.  Does the student use their first language typical of their peers (disregard typical developmental errors in the native language)?  Are the parents concerned about their child’s native language skills? What kind of errors does the student make?  Has there been a history of difficulty with reading, expressing, or processing language in the family?

6. Meet with your school’s team and parents. Present your test results and suggest an educational plan for the student if necessary. Parents may be very sensitive toward the fact that their child may need special education services.  Be aware that your student’s parents may disagree with this plan and any indication that their child has a learning disability (even if assessments and data support your claim).

7. If the student has a learning disability, meet with the student’s special education teacher to discuss the student and strategies that work for the student’s learning.  ESL students must receive both special education services and ESL services.

Factors Affecting Second Language Acquisition

There are numerous factors that could impede your ESL student’s learning.  The following factors may make acquiring the English language more challenging for your student.

1. Language. The more differences between the student’s first language and English, the more difficult it will be for this student to acquire English. Languages such as Arabic and Russian are languages that are very different from English. The closer the student’s native language is to English, the easier it will be to acquire English. Cognates or similar sounding vocabulary words, similar grammatical structure, and the Roman or Latin alphabet used for writing are all similarities that make learning English easier.

2. Culture. Does your student come from a culture where students are more passive in the classroom? Students may be discouraged from asking questions or admitting that they do not understand the content that has been taught. Is critical thinking valued in the student’s culture or is rote learning? Eye contact may be perceived as rude in some cultures, whereas in the United States, eye contact in the classroom means that the student is being respectful, paying attention, and cares about their learning. Is education valued at home or is education believed to be solely the school’s responsibility? Does the student have many responsibilities at home either with helping their parents at work or taking care of their siblings? These are just some examples of cultural differences that may affect the student’s language learning and progress.

3. Previous education. Has the student had interrupted schooling because of moving frequently or because he or she has been a refugee? How much does the student know in their first language? Do they know academic vocabulary words in their first language? Do they know how to read and write in their native language? The more the student knows in their first language, the faster and easier it will be for this student to acquire English.

4. Affective filter and personality. Affective filter is a term that refers to a student’s emotions and motivation that may impact student’s learning. It can be very daunting and overwhelming for a student to move to the United States without knowing the culture or language. Having anxiety and feeling overwhelmed may negatively affect language learning. Does the student want to live in the United States? Are they motivated to learn English? Is the student shy or fearful of making mistakes or are they risk takers and self-confident? All of these factors may affect the progress of acquiring English.

5. Intelligence.  The more intelligent the student is, the faster they will learn English.

   What do these factors have to do with ESL students having a learning disability?

   When questioning whether or not your ESL student has a learning disability, you need to strongly consider the above factors. These factors do not mean that the student has a disability, but rather, are natural barriers that may impede your student’s learning of English. Keeping these factors in mind, it is best to wait and give the student time to learn English and acclimate to the American culture. What could become problematic is assuming that your student has a disability without considering the factors that make learning English naturally challenging for your student. This could result in inaccurately labeling your student as a special education student when they are not. This could also lead to possibly upsetting and confusing parents. In the education field, misidentifying students with having a learning disability and over identifying English language learners as having learning disabilities should be, and usually is, strongly discouraged and frowned upon. If you misidentify an ESL student with a learning disability and this student begins to adjust to the culture and new life in the United States, this student may begin showing progress with their English language learning and overall learning in the classroom. As a result, it may be clear that this student did not need special education services at all. If this happens, you could greatly lose your credibility as a teacher even though you had good intentions for your student.

   At times, you may feel confused and may not know the reasons for why your student is exhibiting much difficulty with learning English despite considering the above factors and giving your student plenty of time and opportunities for learning. You may feel concern for your student and you may express your concerns and your confusion to the classroom teacher and to the academic intervention team. Your goal may be to gain ideas and strategies to help your student, to monitor your student at that point, and to give a heads up to the team that this student may need extra services in the future. Just because you meet with the academic intervention team does not necessarily mean that you feel strongly that your student has a learning disability and needs additional support. It is acceptable to say, “I do not know why my student is not making progress.” It is okay to admit this! Even though you are an expert in the ESL field, it does not mean that you know everything. You are only human!

   Personal Experience:

   I had a student from China who entered the school district as a kindergartener without knowing English or the American culture. He exhibited a lot of difficulty learning English that first year. He experienced the Silent Period for most of the year and exhibited anxiety and shyness while learning. Because of these factors, I waited until the end of the school year to consult with the academic intervention team. I explained to the team that this student was having difficulty learning English and was not making progress similar to his peers. I admitted to the team that I did not know why after the entire school year that he was making such little progress. We decided to closely monitor this student he following school year. When this student entered first grade, he blossomed from the start! I had this student for a number of years and I asked him why he changed so much. He told me that one day toward the end of kindergarten, his father came to school to pick him up. His father saw that he was standing against the wall of the school away from the other students and not interacting with these students. His father strongly encouraged him to make friends and to participate in school. This is exactly what he did! From the beginning of first grade, he began making friends and participating in the classroom. When I expressed my concerns to his first grade teacher at the beginning of the year, she could not believe what I was saying and I did not believe her when she was telling me that this student was making friends and was eager to participate in class. He later told me that he lived with his grandparents in China when he was very young. When he was ready to begin school, his grandparents flew him to the United States to live with his parents. When he saw his father, he asked his grandparents who this person was. He not only began living with his parents who he did not know, he did not know any English, the American culture, and he had never experienced being in a school setting before. This student is also very uneasy with change. These were all major factors that greatly influenced his learning in school and his English language learning. Needless to say, I did not need to meet with the team to follow up on this student!

ESL or Special Education: Parent Response

If you feel that your ESL student has a learning disability and need to meet with the parents/guardians, one important point to consider is that the parents may refuse to listen or believe you. In some cultures, the term “special education” may refer to students with severe disabilities. If their child does not have a severe disability, then the parent will not perceive their child needing special education services.

Depending on the culture, special education students may have a very negative stigma. If this is the case, they may refuse to believe and accept that their child may need special education services.

In addition, parents may refuse to sign paperwork or give permission for special education testing, even year after year. This may occur despite poor grades that their child receives each school year.

Some parents may blame their child’s English skills as the sole reason for their lack of success in school.

As an ESL teacher, you play your role as best as you can. At every parent/teacher conference, it is important to discuss with the parents their child’s strengths in academic, social, and emotional areas. When discussing challenges, I mention how much their child would benefit from more academic support. I advocate for their child every year as long as they are my student.

If nothing occurs from our discussions, at the beginning of every school year, I voice my concerns to the student’s new classroom teacher. I have found that classroom teachers do their best to modify work and group students according to their ability whether they are officially special education students or not.

It was very difficult for me to observe my ESL students struggle every single school year without extra support that could have been given to this student if they received special education services.

My Personal Experience:

I had an ESL student whose parents never signed paperwork for special education testing even though this student really needed extra academic support. This occurred every school year. One of my other students was a twin who, in my opinion, needed special education services. It was more apparent with this particular student because she had a twin sister who did not greatly struggle academically. When the student was in fifth grade, we had a conference with the parents about their child’s difficulty and lack of academic progress. We suggested special education testing to see if she needed services. The parents refused to consider special education services for their child and now she is a senior in high school still struggling in school.

ESL or Special Education: Documented Disability and Native Language Assessments

Documented Disability

The easiest way to determine whether your ESL student has a learning disability is if there is a documented disability in their first language. This means that the student was formally tested and based on the results, the student was identified as having a language or learning disability. If a student has a documented disability in their first language, then they should already be receiving special education services. A documented disability means that the student’s difficulty in learning is due to an overall language or learning disability.  Their learning difficulties are not solely due to learning the English language.

Assessing the Student in their Native Language

The best way to determine whether your ESL student’s difficulty in learning is due to language or learning a second language is by assessing the student in their first language or in their stronger language.  By assessing the student in their first language or stronger language, you are eliminating the possibility that the student’s learning difficulties are solely due to learning English. Assessing the student in their native language should be done if the student has had prior educational experiences in their native language. For example, if the student never learned to read or write in their native language, then this student’s reading and writing skills should not be assessed in their first language.

Informal Assessments

What do school districts do if it is not possible to test the student in their native language?

One solution could be to undergo an informal assessment by a teacher who speaks the language of the student who needs to be assessed. In addition, meeting with the parents or guardians to obtain information about the student’s first language skills is critical. If the parents report that their child makes errors in their first language atypical of their same aged peers who share the same first language, culture, and educational experiences, then the student’s difficulty in learning may be due to an overall language difficulty. I stressed the word atypical because if all children make the same language errors in the student’s native language, then the errors are natural, developmental errors and are not a concern.

Also, if parents report that their child had difficulty learning in their native language and country, then this is evidence that the child may have a learning disability.

My Personal Experience:

I previously wrote about a student who has a documented disability in reading. During the conference with the student’s parents, the student’s father stated that he had much difficulty reading Spanish in school in his native country of Mexico. This was a helpful piece of information that was added to our other data in determining whether or not this ESL student has a reading disability.I taught two twin girls who came from Macedonia. One of the girls learned English typically of most ESL students, but the other twin had difficulty and made significantly less progress. Because both students came from the same background (language, culture, educational experiences), it was easier for me to differentiate whether her learning difficulties were due to the English language or a learning disability in her first language.

Receptive and Productive Skills

There are two aspects of language:  receptive skills and productive skills.  Knowing about receptive and productive language enables you to understand the natural process of language development.

Receptive Skills

Receptive skills include understanding and reading the English language.  Receptive skills pertain to receiving information. When a student is spoken to, the student is receiving what the speaker is saying by listening to the speaker and understanding the speaker.  The student is listening to the person’s speech and observing their body language to understand what the person is communicating.  The same is true for the reading process.  When a student is reading, the student is receiving information such as letters, sight words, punctuation, etc.. Receiving language is easier than creating language. Therefore, receptive skills are easier to acquire than productive skills. Typically, ESL students will develop understanding and reading skills easier and faster than speaking and writing skills.

Productive Skills

Productive skills include speaking and writing the English language. Productive skills refer to producing or expressing language or information.  When a student speaks or writes, the student is producing or expressing information.  Producing information is much more difficult than receiving information.  Therefore, productive skills are more difficult and slower to develop than receptive skills.  Writing skills in particular are the most difficult skills to learn and will be acquired last.

It is important for parents and teachers to know this natural process, so they are able to exhibit understanding and patience when a child is speaking or writing.  Knowing about receptive and productive skills can alleviate a parent's or teacher’s confusion when an English language learner has stronger reading skills than writing skills and stronger understanding skills than speaking skills.

What do receptive and productive skills have to do with identifying an ESL student with a learning disability?

It is important for ESL teachers to understand how typical English language learners develop language skills. It is necessary for ESL teachers to know that their students will develop understanding and reading skills faster than speaking and writing skills. This knowledge may help to avoid misdiagnosing an ESL student having a speech and language disability because their speaking skills are not as fully developed as their understanding skills.  

Knowing about receptive and productive skills is helpful when identifying an ESL student having a reading disability.  An indication of an ESL student having a reading disability could be that their reading skills have developed much slower than their other skills.  This is atypical of English language development and could be a sign that the ESL student may have a reading disability.

Personal Experience:

I had a student whose understanding and speaking skills were much more fully developed than his reading and writing skills. Since understanding and reading skills are acquired faster than speaking and writing skills, this student was developing his English language skills in an atypical way than most ESL students.  

This child entered the school district in kindergarten, was in the second grade, but reading at a kindergarten level. He was proficient in his speaking skills, but not in his reading skills. Because reading skills are acquired at a faster rate than speaking and writing skills, this discrepancy would be atypical of an ESL student.  ESL students who begin their education in kindergarten would typically be reading at grade level or close to grade level by the second grade. Because I knew about productive and receptive skills and the natural process of English language development, I was able to identify a reading disability.  The student received special education services for reading in addition to his ESL services.

Stages of Second Language Acquisition

There are five language development stages for students learning English. I will briefly explain each stage.

The Pre-Production stage, or Silent Period, occurs when the ESL student is not producing any language and is therefore silent. This stage is natural and all students experience this stage when first learning English. It may appear that the student is not learning much English during this stage, but the student is actually learning a lot of English! During the Silent Period, the ESL student is building their receptive vocabulary, which means they are listening and learning various vocabulary words. They are also figuring out and learning English grammar. While learning these English skills, the student is also observing teacher and student behaviors or, in other words, learning the school culture while also learning the country’s culture.

The Silent Period may last from a few days to an entire school year! This period of time needs to be respected. Teachers and peers should not force the student to speak and should accept the fact that this is a challenging time for the student as they adjust to the new language and culture in their own way.

It is very helpful for teachers, staff, and peers to make the student feel as comfortable and secure as possible. The ESL student usually feels overwhelmed and exhausted at this stage (especially at the end of the school day), so the student may need to rest or sleep throughout the day. It is acceptable for teachers to allow their ESL students at the Pre-Production stage to rest or sleep. Teaching and developing the student's BICS is key at this stage. Total Physical Response (TPR) is effective at this stage as well as repetition of vocabulary words and phrases.

Early Production Stage.

ESL students will eventually begin to say a few words and short phrases. Because of this, the teacher can elicit one word or two word responses such as asking Yes/No questions. If the student feels comfortable, he/she can state commands during a TPR activity instead of the ESL teacher giving the commands. Texts that contain a predictable pattern are effective for ESL students at this stage. Students learn frozen language such as, “My name is _____. I come from _____. I am _____ years old”. The student continues to increase their receptive vocabulary and is still in the process of learning English grammar whether he/she is actually producing language or not.

BICS, or social language, is the priority at this stage. Depending on the student, the Early Production Stage may last several weeks. The teacher needs to continue to provide a supportive and low stress environment for the student. If the student makes an error, do not correct the student unless he/she wants to be corrected. Instead, correct the student by modeling the correct language to him/her. The reason for this is that you want to encourage the student to produce and learn the language in a very low anxiety environment. Praising the student is very helpful at this stage as you want your student to feel safe to produce language. The Pre-Production and Early Production Stages fall under the Beginner Proficiency Level.

The Speech Emergence Stage

The Speech Emergence Stage falls under the Early Intermediate Proficiency Level. In the Speech Emergence Stage, the student has developed about 3,000 words and is able to use simple phrases and sentences when producing the English language. Language is used more naturally at this stage meaning that you can begin to have more natural conversations with the student. Students at this stage may not be grammatically correct, so teachers need to model the correct grammar instead of directly correcting the student (unless the student wants to be corrected in a direct way). The reason for this is that you still want to provide a safe and low anxiety learning environment for the student, so students feel safe to use or apply the language they have learned.

Students at the Speech Emergence Stage are able to participate in their classroom, especially in small groups and can understand and learn some academic content with support. BICS, or social language, is still key at this stage in addition to some academic language. Journal writing and writing riddles are two appropriate activities that the student can do at this stage. ESL students can also complete classroom work that is adapted to their language abilities.

The longest stage among the five stages of language development is the Intermediate Fluency stage. At this stage, ESL students are producing more complex sentences and the focus is less on social language (BICS) and more on academic language (CALP).  It is important for ESL teachers to develop the student's CALP at this stage.  Students are able to understand classroom content with some support. The more the student learns the English language, the better they are able to understand academic content and the less support they will need. Academic vocabulary instruction is crucial along with intermediate grammar instruction, so students are able to express themselves in an academic setting. Students’ writing skills are weak at this stage and need to be a focus as well. The Intermediate Fluency stage may last for a few to many years.

The last stage is the Advanced Fluency stage. Students at this stage are very close to having native-like proficiency in content areas. They are able to understand content in the classroom, but may still need help with academic vocabulary or abstract language such as phrasal verbs or idioms. Students at this stage are close to, or already have, exited from ESL services. It is important to express to classroom teachers that students at this stage are still learning English and may need help with vocabulary words and abstract language.

Each student is different, so the time is takes for an ESL student to progress through each stage or a particular stage will vary. Typical English language learners move through each stage and show progress with their language skills. A sign that an ESL student may have a disability is when the student remains at a stage for a very long time and is exhibiting great difficulty at a particular stage. The student is unable to progress with their language skills or demonstrates very little progress with their English language development.

Helpful Suggestion:

Many of my colleagues did not understand how to recognize a disability in an English language learner. They did not know how a typical ESL student learns English and, therefore, how to recognize a disability in an ESL student who was an atypical learner. Showing the work and progress of typical ESL students to a colleague who is questioning whether or not an ESL student has a disability is very helpful.

When teaching English language learners, I documented my students’ progress and language development. Each student had a folder that contained the lists of vocabulary words and grammar structures they had learned and were currently learning. I wrote the date that indicated when the student began learning the vocabulary words and grammar structures and also wrote the date of when they fully learned these words and structures. I also did the same for each reading level (when we began a reading level and when the student finished this level and moved on to the next level). This shows how the students progress and at what speed. In addition, I kept writing samples or photocopied writing samples of the student with the date on each sample. By doing this, I documented each student’s progress. For some students, I made two copies (removing the student’s name for confidentiality purposes) and placed the second copy in a folder as a reference. These copies were used as a reference to show colleagues typical English language development, which helped them to better understand atypical development.

BICS Versus CALP

There are two types of languages in English. One type of language is called Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) and the other is called Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP). What is the difference between the two?

Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) is a term that means social language or conversational English. This kind of language is simple or basic. BICS is used in casual settings such as the playground, cafeteria, or school bus.

BICS vocabulary words are simple. They usually contain one or two syllables and are concrete. Examples of BICS vocabulary words include book, pencil, marker, cup, plate, apple, banana, shirt, pants, hat, coat, car, plane, eye, nose, or mouth. These words are called tier one words. Tier one words fall under the category of BICS and are common words used in everyday speech.

BICS grammar is also simple. Sentences are usually short and basic. Examples of BICS grammar include, “I like apples”, “I can read”, “I have a pencil”. Some examples of BICS questions are “Do you like pizza?”, “Did you go to the birthday party?”, “Do you want to play?”

Reading and writing skills are also basic. Books include short and easy to understand sentences. Examples of text that would fall under BICS is “I like apples”, “I like bananas”, “I like carrots”, etc. Or “I can walk”, “I can run”, “I can read”, etc. Writing skills would be the same as the above.

BICS is easier to learn than CALP because the vocabulary words and grammar are simple or basic. BICS is language that is less cognitively demanding than CALP. Because BICS is easier to develop, it usually takes ESL students one to three years until they are proficient in BICS.

All cultures have BICS or social language.

Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency(CALP) is a term that describes academic language used in the classroom. CALP is more difficult because the language itself is more complex, abstract, and sophisticated making CALP more cognitively demanding.

Vocabulary words are multisyllabic and may be composed of prefixes, suffixes, and roots (words like construct, combine, observe). These words are called tier two words. Tier two words are academic words that are frequently used in the classroom. Examples of CALP tier two vocabulary words are camouflage, migrate, hibernate, abolish, dispute, alliance, or melancholy.

Examples of students using CALP are labeling the parts of the cell and explaining their functions, explaining the similarities and differences between the Mayan, Aztec, and Incan cultures, or using similes and metaphors in a poem. This is much more difficult language than BICS!

Tier three words also belong under CALP. Tier three words are words that are specific to a subject or field of study. They are low frequency words and are used less than tier two words. Examples of tier three words are “exponent”, “hyperbole”, and “adjacent”.

Not all cultures have CALP. CALP is used only in literacy cultures. Because CALP is more difficult to acquire than BICS, it usually takes ELL students five to seven years (or more) until proficient in CALP.  

If a student is strong in their first language and has strong literacy skills, then it will take five to seven years to achieve fluency in CALP.  If a student has not fully developed their first language and does not have strong literacy skills in their first language, then it may take seven to ten years to achieve fluency.

Important Points About BICS and CALP:

It typically takes ESL students five to seven years to develop CALP, but this does not mean that they will receive ESL services for this long. ESL students may test out of an ESL program after two to three years of services. It is important to note that just because these students no longer receive ESL services does not mean that they are no longer learning academic English or need English support in their classrooms.

Students may be fluent in BICS, but will most likely be still developing their CALP skills. Classroom teachers may feel confused when their ESL students "sound proficient", but do not perform as well academically. Students who “sound” competent in English may struggle with academic demands of English language instruction in the classroom. If you are an ESL teacher, it may be beneficial to mention this to their classroom teacher. Just because a student “sounds” proficient in English does not mean they do not need ESL services, are not learning academic English, or need extra support learning academic English in the classroom.  The goal for any ESL student is to achieve advanced fluency in social and academic settings.  

Why is knowing about BICS and CALP important? 

As an ESL teacher, it is beneficial to know about BICS and CALP because it is important to know the stages of English language development. When you have a beginner student, you need to know what to teach that student in order for effective language acquisition. In this case, your goal as a teacher would be to develop their BICS language skills before moving on to CALP. This is also true if you have intermediate students. As a teacher, you know that these students have already acquired their BICS language skills and to focus on developing their academic language skills.

If you know the pattern of how ESL students typically learn English, then it will be easier to detect ESL students who do not follow this pattern. Students who do not follow the typical pattern of English language acquisition usually have difficulty learning English. It is these students who you monitor and who may need special education services. If you are certain that your ESL student has a disability after a year or two of ESL services, and a response from a staff member is, "Doesn't it take at least five to seven years before ESL students acquire English?  It takes a long time for ESL students to learn English, so why are you concerned about this student having a learning disability already?"  Your response could validate this staff member's knowledge that yes, it does take five to seven years until an ESL student acquires CALP skills, but because of this student's slow progress due to this student exhibiting much more difficulty learning English than a typical ESL student, it may take much longer for this student to acquire English.  Therefore, this student may need additional services to support their English learning while shortening the time it will take for this student to fully develop their English skills.