Bilingualism/Multilingualism: Literacy and Bilinguals

If you have a bilingual child, what is the best way to develop their literacy skills in both languages?  There are a variety of  programs for learning to read and write in both languages.

The dual language model is where both languages are used for literacy instruction and development throughout the day. The immersion bilingual education program is where children learn to read in their second language before they learn to read in their native language. Literacy in the native language is added to the child’s education and not replaced.

Another program is the opposite of the previous model.  Children develop their literacy skills in their native language first and then develop literacy skills in their second language. Educators who support this model claim that it is easier to understand texts in a language that you already know and understand. The goal of these models is additive bilingualism where a second language is added to the child’s native language without replacing their native language.

Research has concluded that literacy skills in a student’s first language is a strong predictor of their development of reading skills in their second language. The more literacy skills a student has in their first language, the easier and quicker it will be for that student to acquire literacy skills in English.  If a child understands the concepts of print and uses comprehension strategies (scanning, skimming, visualizing, using background knowledge, making inferences, etc.) in their native language, the child transfers these literacy skills from their first language to their second.  Many educators believe that because of this research, it may be more effective to develop the child’s literacy skills in their native language first and later on, develop the child’s second language literacy skills.  

Reading and writing skills need to be explicitly taught, especially the differences between the two languages. The child’s writing system in their first language and whether or not the child’s first language is a literate language may affect the ease and rate at which English literacy skills are acquired.

An important point to language success is language development. The more a parent develops their child’s native language in all four domains (speaking, understanding, reading, and writing), the more successful the child will be in acquiring a second language.

Bilingualism/Multilingualism: Translanguaging

Bilingual teachers usually use one language during each block of instruction. But, is separating each language the most effective way for teaching both languages? The current bilingual trend is moving away from separating the two languages to using both languages in the same lesson. Using both languages in order to solve a problem or to understand content in the classroom is called translanguaging.

Translanguaging is used to maximize students' learning. The reasoning behind using translanguaging in the classroom is the belief that students naturally use both languages in order to fully understand and learn academic content. The goal of bilingualism and translanguaging is to develop academic learning and skills in both languages.  If translanguaging is occurring in the classroom, then progress and learning need to be achieved in both languages through effective language planning.  Ensuring that students are effectively using both languages during a lesson needs to be managed, so students do not overrely on one language over the other. This may be difficult to regulate since students may naturally prefer using one language over the other.

What is the difference between translanguaging and codeswitching: Translanguaging in the classroom is a much deeper process than codeswitching. Translanguaging is when both languages are used in order to solve an academic problem or to understand academic concepts in a deeper way. The goal of translanguaging is to fully understand and learn academic content by using two languages. Codeswitching or codemixing is when a bilingual person switches between two languages while speaking.  Codeswitching may occur to solve an academic problem or to understand academic content, but there are many other reasons why codeswitching occurs that do not involve academic content. There are a variety of social reasons for codeswitching, whereas the only goal for translanguaing is to obtain a deeper meaning and understanding of academic concepts.

Bilingualism/Multilingualism: The Effectiveness of Bilingual Education

How effective are bilingual education programs? Is there one model that is the most effective? Are there any cons to bilingual education? I will summarize the various studies that have been done on bilingual education and include only the most recent research.

The most current research on bilingual education suggests that bilingual education is superior to English-only models. Research has concluded that two-way dual language programs or the dual language model are the most effective programs for developing both languages.  The two-way dual language program is where both languages are used for instruction and learning throughout the day.  The goal of two-way dual language programs is for students to become equally proficient in both languages, producing balanced bilinguals. Success in two-way dual language programs takes a considerable amount of time. Students who begin a two-way bilingual program at the elementary level do not reach success until after approximately six years of bilingual education. At this point, bilingual students have caught up to their monolingual peers in their language skills. As their education continues, it is believed that bilingual students outperform their monolingual peers.

What about the least effective program? According to research, ESL pull-out programs resulted in the lowest student performance. This is a common program for ESL students in monolingual schools.

A common question that is asked is, "Is the students’ first language hindered while the student learns both languages?" Studies have concluded that bilingual students learn a second language without hindering their first language skills.

The success of any program needs to have certain qualities and characteristics in order to succeed like quality teachers, resources, and support from parents. Success also depends on students’ prior schooling, home life, confidence, self-esteem, and motivation to learn. Because there are numerous factors that influence the success of bilingual education, it is no guarantee of an effective education.

One factor that greatly effects the success of any type of education is the socio-economic status of the school district and community. Many ESL students come from impoverished homes and communities. Schools in impoverished areas may not receive as much funding and as many resources as schools in wealthy districts. Impoverished schools also face other issues as a result of poverty. Although bilingual programs may benefit these students academically, it cannot solve problems of poverty.

In regard to research, it is important to note that studies performed in an urban, middle-class community cannot be generalized to another context such as a low-socioeconomic community in either a rural or urban setting. Research is never perfect and there are many factors that can influence findings. Measuring language competence and academic achievement are challenging and may skew results and conclusions. Test scores also have their limitations.

Is bilingual education effective outside of school? For some students, the second language is rarely used outside of school. Just because students know their second language, does not necessarily mean they use it. Will a bilingual student who is competent in both Spanish and English use academic Spanish in the United States? If not, how will the student’s academic Spanish be maintained? Although research on bilingual education is never perfect, it is still valuable. Examining the conditions that contribute to the success of bilingual eduction and how we obtain these conditions is a key issue.

Bilingualism/Multilingualism: Bilingual Programs

What is the difference between English as a Second Language (ESL) programs and bilingual education? What is the goal of each?

The goal of ESL programs is monolingualism. The aim is to develop ESL students’ English language proficiency. Although the students’ native language may be used in the classroom, the students’ native language is not developed in ESL programs.

Bilingual education is much different than ESL. The aim of bilingual education is to develop the students’ native language as well as theEnglish language. The goals of bilingual education are also biliteracy and biculturalism.  

In ESL classrooms, English is used for instruction and learning, so that students become competent in the English language. In bilingual classrooms, both languages are used for instruction and learning, so that students become equally proficient in both languages, producing balanced bilinguals.

There are a variety of strong forms of bilingual education. One is immersion bilingual education which consists of a bilingual classroom with the initial emphasis on the second language. Students are immersed in the second language and their native language is added in later grades. The two-waydual language programs or dual language programs is where the students’ first and second language are used for instruction and learning throughout the school day from the beginning of their education.

What features do dual language programs share?

1. A language other than English is used for at least half of instruction for up to six years.

2. Only one language is used during one block of instruction.The language is learned mainly though content instruction. For example, science may be taught only in Spanish.

3. Both English and non-English speakers learn in the same classroom.

4. Each language is used for instruction and learning half of the time in order to achieve a language balance.

What are the goals of bilingual education?

1. Proficiency in both languages is achieved in understanding, speaking, reading and writing both languages.

2. Academic achievement in subjects such as math, social studies, and science.

3. Enhance cultural awareness and positive attitudes toward various cultures and people of different cultures.

4. To benefit communities from having bilingual citizens through employment as well as socially and culturally.

Practices in bilingual schools:

1. Both languages are given equal status.

2. School displays, signs, announcements, and activities use both languages in a balanced way.

3. All or most staff members are bilingual.Some teachers may be English speaking only if they co-teach with a bilingual teacher.

4. The length of bilingual programs may vary.The longer the bilingual education program, the more effective in establishing competency in both languages.

Heritage Language Bilingual Education

Heritage language education refers to bilingual programs that develop students’ proficiency in their heritage language. These programs usually do not result in high levels of competency in the heritage language. Heritage programs are effective if students use the heritage language as a means of instruction in order to become a balanced bilingual. An example of heritage language education in the United States is Native American students learning their native language. The goal of heritage language bilingual education is to protect and preserve the language while developing the majority language (English). Dual language bilingual education differs from heritage language education in that the aim of dual language bilingual education is to produce a balance of both languages. The goal of heritage language education is usually to preserve the heritage language and culture.

Day Schools

Day schools are usually private schools or establishments. Some day schools are religious schools where students are provided some instruction in their native or heritage language (Jewish students learning Hebrew or Yiddish). Other day schools provide a class each day for the students to learn their heritage language.

Bilingualism/Multilingualism: Underachievement for Bilinguals

Have you ever wondered why so many bilinguals are struggling in school despite the positive beliefs about bilingualism?  If research suggests that bilinguals have cognitive advantages over monolinguals and at a certain point, surpass their monolingual peers in the classroom, then why are so many bilinguals underachieving in schools?

It is claimed that the underachievement of bilinguals is due to factors other than knowing two languages. The following factors may contribute to the underachievement of bilinguals in school.Some of theses factors can overlap.

Weak Competency in First Language:

The Developmental Interdependence theory states that the stronger your first language, the easier and faster it will be to acquire a second language. Academic vocabulary and literacy skills will transfer from the first language to the second. Therefore, the stronger the skills in the first language, the stronger the second language will become. As a result, the student will experience more language and academic success in school.  If proficiency is weak in the first language, it will take more time and be more difficult to learn the second language.  If there is a lack of academic vocabulary and reading skills in the student's native language, then it will take more time and be more difficult to learn these skills in the second language.

Culture:

Some parents in the American culture take on an active role in their children’s education. These parents work with their children to prepare them for school and continue to play an active role throughout their child’s education. These students come from families who value education at home and nurture critical thinking skills in their children. Some cultures do not view their role in their child’s education in this way. Parents from some cultures view school, and school alone, as being responsible for their child’s education and it is not the role of the parents to educate their child at home. This is not wrong, but may be a reason as to why some bilinguals lag behind in school.

Some cultures may value rote learning over critical thinking skills, skills that are valued in the American school culture. Some parents of some cultures may jump in and solve a problem that their child is struggling with at home instead of allowing the child to solve the problem on their own. Therefore, bilingual students from these cultures may not have sufficient critical thinking skills because they are not used to thinking and learning in this way.

Higher Standards:

While teaching English as a second language, I noticed that the grade level standards increased throughout the years. The higher standards could be an additional factor for why some ESL students are underachieving in schools. As a bilingual teacher or an ESL teacher, what can you do when school is not valued at home?  One solution is that you can provide lists of vocabulary words that will be taught in the classroom each trimester or quarter. These lists can be translated and parents can pre-teach these words at home if they are able.If parents are able to read English, you can provide lists of sight words as well as books from a lending library that the child can read at home. You can encourage parents to visit their local library.  You can also foster critical thinking skills in your classroom.

Socioeconomic Status:

There is a strong correlation between students’ socioeconomic status and academic achievement.Poverty and lack of resources could contribute to underachievement in school. As an educator, you can provide books from your lending library and/or encourage your students to go to the public library to obtain books to read.

Quality of Education:

Some monolingual schools have bilingual teachers and aides, however, there is no effective model for language instruction and learning. I have taught in a school where ESL classrooms speak mostly the students’ native language or resort to the first language often when teaching. This causes over reliance on the student’s native language and does not increase the students’ English language skills or their confidence in English. I noticed that these students remained in ESL classes year after year and did not exhibit confidence with their English skills. If the child is to receive a bilingual education, the model needs to be effective and benefit the students in both languages.

Interrupted Schooling and Trauma:

Some bilingual students may come from countries of civil unrest or oppression. As a result, the child may experience stress from this experience in addition to the stress of adjusting to a new culture and language.  Also, there may have been periods of time when the child could not attend school.

Learning Disabilities:

Bilingual children can have learning difficulties just like their monolingual peers. It is important to note that bilingual children must receive both special education services and language support.

Final Thoughts:

When thinking about your bilingual students, it is important to accept your students as they are as well as where they are academically. Your role is not just teaching language skills. Your role is also caring about your bilingual students, supporting your students and being there for them, and empowering your bilingual students. From an educational perspective as a whole, how can we make education in America more accessible for all students? What needs to change and how do we change, so that bilingual students are more successful in American schools?

Bilingualism/Multilingualism: Theories

The most relevant theory that ESL teachers need to know is called the Developmental Interdependence theory. This theory suggests that a child’s second language acquisition and competence partly depends on the level of competence the child has in their first language. In other words, the more the child knows in their first language, the easier and quicker it will be for the child to develop their second language. The reason for this is that the ESL student transfers their knowledge from the first to the second language. An example of this is vocabulary knowledge. When learning a second language, the ESL student transfers vocabulary knowledge from their first language to their second. Therefore, the more vocabulary words a student knows in their first language, the easier and faster it will be for the student to acquire proficiency in their second language (and the easier it will be for ESL teachers to teach these students!) When a student’s vocabulary knowledge is weak in their first language, then the student must be explicitly taught the meaning of the vocabulary word and the language for that word.This makes learning a second language more difficult and more time consuming.

The Developmental Interdependence theory stresses language in general for the success of learning a second language. As a parent or an ESL teacher, the emphasis on your child's/student’s native language is key. Therefore, as an ESL teacher, it is important to inform parents to teach their children as much of their first language as possible. This will make their first language strong and will therefore result in a strong second language. If parents are able, giving lists of academic vocabulary words for parents to pre-teach to their children may be helpful.  Encouraging parents to read with their child can also help develop their child's vocabulary.  Stressing the importance of your students’ first language could be a topic to discuss during Open House and parent/teacher conferences. The Developmental Interdependence theory challenges the English only policy that is sometimes supported in monolingual schools where the majority language is English. The Developmental Interdependence theory suggests that English is not the key, but a strong first language is.

Supporting the Developmental Interdependence theory is the current theory about bilingualism and the thought system behind learning languages. This theory is called the Common Underlying Proficiency Model (CUP). The CUP suggests that both languages function within the same system. This model also states that humans are able to store two or more languages and there is no limit for learning another language or multiple languages in the brain. The CUP supports the evidence that bilinguals are able to use both languages with ease and can transfer knowledge from one language to their other language. The CUP also supports the Developmental Interdependence theory in that the student is able to transfer their knowledge from their first language to their second. An example of transferring between languages is codeswitching.

An outdated theory about bilingualism states that there is limited room in the brain for learning two or more languages.This false theory is called the Separate Underlying Proficiency (SUP). This theory states that each language acts separately from one another. For example, for a bilingual child learning English and Spanish, one operating system stores and uses English and the other operating system stores and uses Spanish. Each language area is separate from one another and do not interact or work together.

Bilingual Education:

The Thresholds Theory states that cognitive advantages of bilinguals depend on the level of competence in each language. A child must reach a certain level of proficiency to avoid negative consequences of bilingualism. The child must then reach a second threshold, or level of competence, to experience the positive benefits of bilingualism. It is believed that the Thresholds Theory helps to explain why bilingual children in bilingual immersion classes experience a delay at first when learning their second language. The bilingual students’ proficiency in their second language catches up to the proficiency in their first language.  As a result, the students become balanced bilinguals. Once these students’ second language develops to a certain level of proficiency where students are able to comprehend academic language in the classroom, these students begin to benefit from being bilingual.  Research suggests that balanced bilinguals surpass their monolingual peers.

Bilingualism/Multilingualism: Cognitive Advantages of Bilingualism

Have you ever heard that learning another language is good for your brain? Well, it’s true! Studies have shown that learning another language has positive effects on your brain. It is claimed that cognitive advantages of bilinguals occur when a certain level of proficiency is obtained. Research that has been done on bilinguals has mostly focused on balanced bilinguals or bilinguals whose two languages are well developed. Recent research has shown that balanced bilinguals have cognitive advantages that monolinguals do not have. Studies have concluded that the more a child is proficient in both languages, the greater the probability of cognitive advantages.

Research has shown that bilinguals are more divergent thinkers. Divergent thinkers are more creative, flexible in thinking, and imaginative. They are also more original and elaborate with their thinking. For example, if you asked a bilingual, “How can I use a piece of wood?”,convergent thinkers would give you typical answers that you would expect such as building a house or building a wall. Divergent thinkers may give you answers such as for propping up a wobbly table, blocking a hole, or breaking a window.

Transferring Knowledge and Skills:

Studies have shown that bilinguals have increased metalinguistic awareness than monolinguals. If ESL students, or emergent bilinguals, have reading skills in their first language, then gaining reading skills in their second language will be easier. ESL students already have the knowledge of concepts of print and phonological awareness in their first language (metalinguistic skills), so they can transfer their reading knowledge and skills to reading in their second language. This may be especially true for languages that share the same writing system. The same is true for academic vocabulary. The more developed a child’s vocabulary is in their first language, the easier it will be for this child to transfer their vocabulary knowledge to their second language.  This is called the Developmental Interdependence theory.  The more proficient a child is in their first language, the easier and faster it will be for the child to acquire their second language.

Aging:

Learning another language helps decrease some of the negative cognitive effects of aging. Bilinguals who know and speak two or more languages throughout their lives show a decrease in cognitive decline as they age, especially with memory. Research has shown that signs of dementia or Alzheimer disease are delayed with aging bilinguals compared to monolinguals.

Socioeconomic Factors:

An important question to ask is if all children benefit from bilingualism. Do children from all socioeconomic backgrounds share in the cognitive advantages of being bilingual?Have studies only focused on children from middle or higher socioeconomic status or have children from lower socioeconomic backgrounds been included in research as well? Do balanced bilinguals come from families who encourage creative thinking and nurture metalinguistic skills? Does this factor contribute to the cognitive advantages of bilinguals? What about children who come from families who do not foster creative thinking and metalinguistic skills?

Limitations of Test Findings:

It is important to note that test findings have limitations. For example, how are intelligence and creativity measured? As asked above, which populations of bilinguals were included in bilingual research?

Bilingualism/Multilingualism: Children As Interpreters

In families where parents do not speak, or have limited proficiency in, the majority language, children sometimes become interpreters for their parents. When I was an ESL teacher, some of my high school students acted as interpreters for their parents during job interviews.I also have had students interpret during Open House. There can be advantages and disadvantages for a child acting as an interpreter for their parents.

Advantages:

Confidence. As students act as interpreters, their confidence with the majority language and culture may increase. Children may gain metalinguistic awareness by learning new words and phrases in both languages. They may also earn praise and status within the family as well.

Maturity. In many situations, children are exposed to adult information. They are also acting in a more adult way when speaking to professionals. In addition, acting as an interpreter is a big responsibility. All of these factors may lead to greater maturity.

Closeness.  Family members learn to rely and trust one another, resulting in feelings of family unity and closeness.   

Disadvantages:

Unable to Interpret or Inaccurate Interpretations. Children may not know specialized terms or phrases in the majority language, especially technical terms. As a result, they may be unable to interpret information or interpret information correctly. Also, it may be difficult to translate exactly between the two languages. This may decrease the child’s confidence in the majority language and possibly their native language.

Pressure. Children may feel pressured and overwhelmed by acting as an interpreter, especially if they do not know the words being expressed in the majority language or if the exact translation between the two languages is difficult to achieve. Their parents may be relying on them as interpreters, and children may feel pressure and stress with being able to perform effectively as their interpreter

Inappropriate. Children may be exposed to information that may be inappropriate. Some information could have an emotional impact on the child such as medical or financial problems.

Parents and Native Language as Inferior. Children and professionals may perceive the parents as being in an inferior position because they do not know, or have limited skills, in the majority language. The majority language may be perceived as having a higher status since it is used for professional and important matters. As a result, children may perceive their native language as well as their native language community as being inferior.

Bilingualism/Multilingualism: Codeswitching

Have you ever noticed your ESL students switching between languages while talking to one another? When I lived in Nairobi, Kenya, I often noticed this phenomenon. Codeswitching or codemixing is when a bilingual person switches between two languages while speaking. You may be wondering why bilinguals do this. Are they being lazy? Not at all! There are numerous reasons why codeswitching occurs.

1. Codeswitching is easier. Some words may be easier to say in one language than the other.  Speakers may substitute words that have less syllables or that are easier or quicker to say. If the speaker does not know the word(s) in one language, the speaker may substitute the word(s) in the other language. For example, technical or academic words may only be known in one of the two languages.

2. Accurately expressing oneself.  Some words may not exist in a language, so the speaker needs to switch to the other language.  Also, a bilingual speaker may be able to more accurately express oneself by using a certain word in one of the two languages.  

3. Problem solving. Codeswitching may occur to help solve a problem. If the bilingual’s academic language is English, the bilingual may switch to English in order to solve an academic problem.

4. Understanding. This usually occurs in the classroom where a teacher may explain a concept in one language and then switch to the other language to reexplain the concept to ensure understanding.

5. Communicate closeness or identity.  Bilinguals may switch from the majority language to the minority language to express closeness and to identify with the minority language community. A bilingual may also use codeswitching to be accepted within a group. On the other hand, if a bilingual wishes to keep distance with another person or keep a professional relationship, they may only speak a specific language with this person.

6. Reported Speech. A bilingual may use codeswitching while describing conversations they previously had or heard. For example, for the sake of accuracy, the bilingual may switch to English in order to tell the other person what a person said in English word-for-word.

7. Exclusion. Codeswitching is sometimes used to exclude others from a conversation. Bilinguals may switch to their minority language in order to talk about a private matter.

8. Topic being discussed. Certain topics are discussed using a specific language. For example, sports may be discussed in the minority language while current events or business matters may be discussed in the majority language.   

9. Emphasis.  Codeswitching may occur when the speaker wants to emphasize a point.

Bilingualism/Multilingualism: After Childhood

Is it easier to learn a second language when you are a child or when you are an adult?

The critical language hypothesis claims that acquiring a second (or multiple) language(s) in a rich language environment is easier for children due to biological cognitive advantages. This hypothesis states that it is ideal to learn a second or third language as a child, and after puberty learning another language is more difficult.

The age when learning a second language becomes more difficult is up for debate. Some claim that learning a second language is more difficult after the age of eight, and others believe that learning a second language is more difficult as one enters adolescence.

Critics claim that the critical language hypothesis is too simple and general, and that there are many factors such as motivation and intelligence that affect second language acquisition.

Critics stress that successful language learning has more to do with the advantages of the individual learning the second language. One advantage may be opportunities for learning the second language. For example, school aged children learn the second language in school, whereas adults may only learn the language once a week for a few hours in a formal language class.

Another advantage is life responsibilities. Adults have responsibilities such as work and taking care of their family which may take away from learning the second language, whereas children do not have these responsibilities. When children learn a second language in a rich language environment (school) when they are young, they are able to maintain and become more proficient in their second language throughout the grade levels.

When I was an ESL teacher, most of the time, the younger the students began learning English, the easier it was for these students to learn English.  Teaching young students was easier for me since I did not have to catch the student up to grade level skills as much as I did with students who entered school in the older grades. Also, kindergarten skills in the classroom corresponded to learning beginner English, so the student received extra practice and reinforcement with, for example, learning letter names and sounds.

When referring to children in this post, I am referring to children in early childhood and school aged children who learn the second language in school. It would be different if a young child attended formal language classes along with teenagers or adults. In this case, the teenagers and adults would most likely have the advantage of learning a second language due to metalinguistic and higher level thinking skills.

Acquiring An Accent:

It is widely believed that children who begin learning another language after puberty will acquire an accent, whereas children who acquire a second language before puberty will not speak with an accent. The reason for this is that children are able to physically pronounce sounds from a language (phonology) easier than adolescents because their mouths are more flexible and malleable. After puberty, our mouths become less flexible and more fixed, and it is, therefore, more difficult to produce the sounds of the second language. From my experience, I did find that young children did not acquire an accent, whereas older children did. Personally, I have observed some students, and this is very rare, who retained an accent despite their age.I believe that these students retained an accent in order to affiliate to their native language community. In this case, I respected this decision and never forced a student to speak like a native English speaker without a foreign-sounding accent.

Bilingualism/Multilingualism: Early Childhood

Most of the world is bilingual.How does this happen? How do children become bilingual?What are the most effective ways for children to learn a second or third language? Does learning a second language benefit or hinder a child’s language abilities?

As ESL/ELL teachers, it is important to know about bilingualism because most to all of your students are bilingual.  At parent/teacher conferences, you may need to address parents' concerns about their child learning two languages, and what type of method is the most effective for their child for acquiring two languages.

Some children learn two languages from infancy. This kind of bilingualism is called simultaneous bilingualism. Simultaneous bilingualism refers to a child from birth who learns both languages at the same time.

Other children learn one language at birth, and then the other language later on. This is called sequential bilingualism. Parents may wonder if learning two languages is confusing or overwhelming for their child. They may also question whether or not learning two languages hinders their child’s language skills. Children are like sponges and soak much information from their surroundings. This is a crucial time for language development and therefore, it is very important to foster their learning at this age. 

The process of a child acquiring two languages is not destructive to the child’s language abilities or progress. Learning two or more languages is actually a natural process because as humans, our brains are programmed to be able to learn, store, and discriminate between languages from infancy.

Factors that Ensure Successful Bilingualism:

Children need to be able to differentiate between the two languages.  Studies have shown that children as young as infants show discrimination between the two languages very early on.  This may be due to research that has shown that infants begin to hear language sounds while in the womb.  By the age of two, bilingual children know which language to speak to which person and in what situation.

Children need to effectively store the two languages. As stated above, this is a natural process because we are biologically programmed to store language(s). T

Types of Early Childhood Bilingualism: 

One Parent - One Language The one parent- one language method is when one parent speaks one language to the child, and the other parent speaks the other language to the child.For example, the father speaks Farsi to the child, and the mother speaks English to the child. This is considered a successful method for a child to acquire two languages. One would assume that the child would become equally proficient in each language (balanced bilingualism), but this is very rare. Proficiency in a language depends on many factors. One factor is which parent the child interacts with the most. For example, the child may talk to the mother more because she remains in the home to raise the child versus the father who is absent due to working outside of the home. As a result, the child may become more proficient in the mother’s language than the father’s language. Another factor is the community language.Despite the mother speaking one language to the child, the community may speak the other language.For example, a mother using English with her child while the community speaks French. Languages used by siblings or others in the the home, print, television, and the internet are other factors that may influence the proficiency of each language.  

Language Used at Home is Different from Community Language One circumstance in which a bilingual child acquires two languages is when the language used at home is different from the community language. The parents use one language at home with the child, and the child acquires the other language outside of the home. This method is regarded as a successful method for acquiring languages. For example, both parents speak Spanish to the child, and the child learns English at school and in the community. Multilingualism could occur here where the child learns one language from the father, another language from the mother, and a third language at school and in the community. An example of this is the father speaking Spanish to the child, the mother speaks German to the child, and the community language is English. Maintaining all three languages over time may be difficult.  

Languages that are Mixed This method refers to both parents speaking both languages to the child.   

Second Language is Introduced to the Child Later in Life In this case, the parents may introduce the second language to the child later on in the child’s life. For example, parents may speak Dutch to the child until the child is three or four, and then add English. The purpose of this is to create a strong first language foundation in the child before the dominant language in the community becomes more prevalent.  

Language Shift A language shift may occur because of changes in a bilingual child’s life. The child will most likely be more proficient in one language than the other. However, the child can become more competent in the less proficient language if, for example, the child moves to an area where the language community uses the child’s weaker language.

Bilingualism/Multilingualism

When you hear the word, “bilingual”, what is the definition that comes to mind? What does it mean to be bilingual? How do you identify a person who is bilingual? Is a bilingual person equally competent in both languages or more competent in one language than the other? To whom and in what situations do bilinguals use one language and to whom and in what situations do bilinguals use the other?

Defining what exactly bilingualism is can get quite complicated. My blog posts are written for ESL teachers or staff members in an educational setting who have ESL students, so the information in this post will be based on this audience.

Ability vs. Use One way that helps define bilinguals is their ability in each language. Some bilinguals are able to understand and speak in both languages. Others are able to understand, speak, read, and write in one language and speak and understand in their other language. Language dominance, the language the person is more proficient in or uses more, may vary with each bilingual. Bilinguals may use each language in different situations or settings. For example, some may use one language in school with their teachers and peers and another at home with their family members.

Monolingual Schools For many monolingual schools in the US, a common occurrence and perception of ESL students is that they are socially fluent in both languages and academically fluent in the majority language (English). It is important to determine the language goals and purposes of your ESL students. If you are in a monolingual school where most students speak English, then the language goals of your ESL students would most likely be that they learn English with native-like proficiency. Some may question why you do not develop your students’ first language. First, a bilingual who is equally and highly competent in both languages in all four domains (reading, writing, understanding, and speaking) is very rare (balanced bilingualism). Second, many monolingual schools do not have the resources or time to fully develop both languages. Third, many ESL teachers simply do not know multiple languages socially and academically to develop the student’s first language.

How much of the first language should be used in the classroom for ESL students to be successful in and out of school? If you know the student’s first language, how will you use it effectively? Again, knowing your ESL students’ goals and purposes for each language is key. I have been in an educational setting where mostly the first language is used for teaching concepts and completing work in the majority language (English). I observed that these students developed English more slowly and were not confident in using English since they were reliant on their first language. These students remained in their ESL classrooms year after year.In this case, how do your ESL students become less reliant on their first language while developing the majority language?

The students in the ESL classroom are called circumstantial bilinguals. Circumstantial bilinguals learn the majority language that is used in their surroundings in order to function and live in their surroundings. The majority language is the language used for business/employment, education, political, and social purposes. If this is the case, we, as ESL teachers, need to ensure that our students are successful in the community that they must live and function in.How will your language goals and objectives reflect your students’ surroundings and needs? What about large cities where there are multiplelanguages and cultures?

One of the most crucial points when talking about ESL students and bilingualism in monolingual schools is for ESL teachers and staff members to value and accept both of the student’s languages. English is not a substitute for the student’s first language, but an additional language. ESL students are not a problem in schools. The ESL student’s first language is also not a problem. ESL students do not “limit” a school’s performance. This is especially true with standardized tests. ESL students may be perceived as inferior and less competent if they do not score as well as their monolingual peers on standardized tests that are written in the majority language.

Holistic View The holistic view of bilingualism perceives both languages as interconnected.  The holistic view believes that both languages are interrelated instead of the two languages functioning separately.  The theory that supports this view is called theCommon Underlying Proficiency Model.  

The Common Underlying Proficiency Model suggests that bilingual students are able to transfer their knowledge from one language to their other language.  Codeswitchingis an example of switching between languages with ease.  Cognates are another example where the same words in the first language exist in the second language. Making connections between the students’ two languages can help students develop their second language while raising awareness of their first language. The holistic view also believes that knowing and understanding one language helps the student know and understand their second language.  The theory that supports this view is called the Developmental Interdependence theory.  If you teach in a bilingual school, do you agree with these beliefs?What are the language goals and purposes of your students? How does your teaching reflect these goals and purposes?

The Benefits of Bilingualism

If I had to choose the number one misconception among my colleagues in regard to ESL students, it would be that ESL students must speak English at home in order to increase their language skills.  Speaking English at home will not increase ESL students’ language skills and in fact, it may be a determent to their language learning!

English as a second language is an additional language, not a substitution.  English should not replace the student’s first language, but should be an additional language that the student knows and uses. 

The following reasons explain the benefits of knowing and using two or more languages as well as reasons why a bilingual child cannot be expected to speak only English at home:

1. If the child’s first language is replaced by English, the child not only loses their native language, but their culture and identity as well. Language is a powerful part of who you are. It is not just words and grammar, but a way of thinking, being, and behaving. Language also contributes to how one understands, views, describes, and values the world around them. The English language is an asset to the child and can create many opportunities for him/her.  Most children who are bilingual are also bicultural. He/she is able to learn two cultures, broadening their perspective about the world around them. Being bilingual and bicultural can open up economic and employment opportunities for bilingual children.

2. Another benefit for being bilingual is that traveling is easier and cheaper if you know the language of the country you are visiting.

3. Being bilingual can also create social opportunities and connections.  Practically speaking, the child may be unable to speak English at home because their family either does not know English or speaks English incorrectly.  If the family knows English, but their English has errors, then the child learns English that is incorrect.  As an ESL teacher, it is much more problematic and difficult to correct the child’s language errors than if the child does not speak any English at all.  This is due to the child's errors being fossilized, or becoming a habit.  These language errors cannot be easily corrected and can be one of the biggest frustrations for English language teachers. Teaching beginners who know no English is easier because you begin with a blank slate and you fill this blank slate with correct English.

4. If the child's native language is replaced by English, then most likely this child will be unable to communicatewith some to most of their family members.  The child’s relatives such as grandparents or extended family members may have remained in their native country or do not know English even if they are residing in an English speaking country.  How will the child be able to communicate with their extended family if they lose their native language? It is a huge disservice to sever this important connection between the child and family member, especially for cultures where family is valued.

5. Theoretically speaking, you need both languages to learn English. The theory that supports this view is called the Developmental Interdependencetheory.  This theory suggests that the more proficient the child is in their first language, the easier and faster the child will acquire English, their second language. The child transfers their knowledge from their first language to their second language.  He/she learns language only and not the concept(s) because the child already understands the concepts in their first language.  Therefore, the student’s first language needs to remain strong while the weaker of the two languages, their second language, is being learned. It is believed that the student’s second language will gradually become stronger and will eventually catch up to the their first language (or come close), so that the student is equally proficient in both languages (balanced bilingual).

6. Students are receiving English language immersion for at least six hours per day in school. This is A LOT of English language instruction!  The student should not be expected to speak English only at home because it is perceived that they are not receiving enough English language instruction in school.

7. No one can force parents to speak English only at home even if the parents are fluent. It is ultimately their choice whether or not their child speaks English in the home. Parents may find value and usefulness in maintaining their native language. 

8. For those of you living in a country where English is the majority language, remember that half to two-thirds of the people in the world are bilingual.  It is often considered the norm to know and use two languages.

9. Numerous studies have found that bilinguals have cognitive advantages that monolinguals do not have.  An interesting observation I have made in the United States is that many students are required to learn a foreign language in middle or high school because it is believed that knowing another language is beneficial.It does not make sense to replace an ESL student’s first language with English in the elementary grades and then later tell these students that knowing two languages will benefit them in the future.